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==The Enlightenment==

==The Enlightenment==

The “Enlightenment” was a philosophical movement in the 1700s that emphasized an intellectual approach rejecting traditional social, political and (sometimes) religious views.  Philosophers in the Enlightenment felt that breakthroughs in science, such as Isaac Newton’s discoveries, could be duplicated in other fields through a systematic and logical approach.  However, Newton’s breakthroughs were inspired by his Christian faith, while some of the Enlightenment thinkers rejected and even criticized Christianity.  There were Enlightenment philosophers in England, France and even the American colonies.  There were stunning new works in classical music, and the arts flourished in what is known as the neo-classical period.

The “Enlightenment” was a philosophical movement in the 1700s that emphasized an intellectual approach rejecting traditional social, political and (sometimes) religious views.  Philosophers in the Enlightenment felt that breakthroughs in science, such as Isaac Newton’s discoveries, could be duplicated in other fields through a systematic and logical approach.  However, Newton’s breakthroughs were inspired by his Christian faith, while some of the Enlightenment thinkers rejected and even criticized Christianity.  There were Enlightenment philosophers in England, France and even the American colonies.  There were stunning new works in classical music, and the arts flourished in what is known as the neo-classical period.

Frenchman Voltaire (1694-1778) was a leading philosopher in the Enlightenment, advocating freedom everywhere and emphasizing his form of reason.  He wrote “The Candide,” in which Voltaire described many bad things that happen to Candide in order to make the point that the world could be a better place.  Increased freedom was Voltaire’s way of improving things.

 

Frenchman Voltaire (1694-1778) was a leading philosopher in the Enlightenment, advocating freedom everywhere and emphasizing his form of reason.  He wrote “The Candide,” in which Voltaire described many bad things that happen to Candide in order to make the point that the world could be a better place.  Increased freedom was Voltaire’s way of improving things.  His ideas later formed the basis of French Revolution, when many innocent people were beheaded and churches destroyed amid a reign of terror.

Englishman John Locke (1632-1704) was the leading political philosopher, whose ideas helped the American colonists form a new government.  Locke described society as a contract between an individual and society.  This was a radical concept at a time when monarchs and the divine right of kings was the controlling theory.  Locke’s view helped lay the foundation for the constitutional government that we use in the United States.  Locke had built on the prior work of Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes.

Englishman John Locke (1632-1704) was the leading political philosopher, whose ideas helped the American colonists form a new government.  Locke described society as a contract between an individual and society.  This was a radical concept at a time when monarchs and the divine right of kings was the controlling theory.  Locke’s view helped lay the foundation for the constitutional government that we use in the United States.  Locke had built on the prior work of Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes.

Swiss-born political philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) wrote several controversial works.  He felt that politics and morality could not be separated, and that the will of the majority was not always correct.  Many Americans today would agree with that view.  However, Rousseau also attacked private property, and laid the groundwork for future communist writers such as Karl Marx.  Rousseau declared that government’s goal should be to provide freedom, equality and justice.  But note that freedom often results in inequality.

Swiss-born political philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) wrote several controversial works.  He felt that politics and morality could not be separated, and that the will of the majority was not always correct.  Many Americans today would agree with that view.  However, Rousseau also attacked private property, and laid the groundwork for future communist writers such as Karl Marx.  Rousseau declared that government’s goal should be to provide freedom, equality and justice.  But note that freedom often results in inequality.

Irishman Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was in the British parliament when the conflict with the American colonies occurred, and he sided with the colonies, making him a hero to many in America.  He is also considered to the world’s first political conservative, and many conservatives today praise him for that reason.  His works included “Inquiries into the Sublime and Beautiful” (defending the American colonies and examining how people interpret what they see) and “Reflections on the Revolution in France” (warning how bad the French Revolution was because a few would gain control and abuse their power, even while everyone else praised that Revolution).  What was striking about Burke was that he was almost always right in his political assessments and predictions.

Irishman Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was in the British parliament when the conflict with the American colonies occurred, and he sided with the colonies, making him a hero to many in America.  He is also considered to the world’s first political conservative, and many conservatives today praise him for that reason.  His works included “Inquiries into the Sublime and Beautiful” (defending the American colonies and examining how people interpret what they see) and “Reflections on the Revolution in France” (warning how bad the French Revolution was because a few would gain control and abuse their power, even while everyone else praised that Revolution).  What was striking about Burke was that he was almost always right in his political assessments and predictions.

The Scotsman David Hume (1711-1776) was a philosopher and historian who promoted materialism and naturalism rather than spirituality.  He was a “skeptic” towards religion, and he penned “A Treatise on Human Nature.”  He quipped, “You can tell what is inside a person’s soul by what comes out if it.”  Hume is considered the greatest philosopher to write in English, but that is only because there were so few good English philosophers.  Hume has been criticized for his atheistic approach and his chief claim to fame is that Charles Darwin declared Hume to have been his central influence, as did “Darwin’s bulldog,” Thomas Henry Huxley.  We will discuss them later in this course.

The Scotsman David Hume (1711-1776) was a philosopher and historian who promoted materialism and naturalism rather than spirituality.  He was a “skeptic” towards religion, and he penned “A Treatise on Human Nature.”  He quipped, “You can tell what is inside a person’s soul by what comes out if it.”  Hume is considered the greatest philosopher to write in English, but that is only because there were so few good English philosophers.  Hume has been criticized for his atheistic approach and his chief claim to fame is that Charles Darwin declared Hume to have been his central influence, as did “Darwin’s bulldog,” Thomas Henry Huxley.  Hume believed in relativism rather than absolute truth, and that not even what God creates has absolute beauty: “Beauty in things exists merely in the mind which contemplates them,” Hume declared.<ref>David Hume’s ''Essays, Moral and Political'' (1742).</ref>

The German Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the most famous philosophers ever.  In his “A Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant criticizes pure reason as a guide to life.  Though Kant may not have been a Christian himself, he considered Christian values to be the best values in the world.  Kant also established a systematic basis for critical philosophy and suggested a material origin for the solar system.  Kant’s own suggestion for a moral daily life was this:  don’t do something which, if everyone did it, then the outcome would be bad.  Expressed another way, an act is moral only if it works as a rule for everyone.  For example, littering would be wrong because if everyone did it, then there would be an ugly mess.  Kant is taught in all college philosophy departments to this day, though not for praising Christianity!

The German Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the most famous philosophers ever.  In his “A Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant criticizes pure reason as a guide to life.  Kant may not have been a Christian himself, but he considered Christian values to be the best values in the world.  Kant also established a systematic basis for critical philosophy and suggested a material origin for the solar system.  Kant’s own suggestion for a moral daily life was this:  don’t do something which, if everyone did it, then the outcome would be bad.  Expressed another way, an act is moral only if it works as a rule for everyone.  For example, littering would be wrong because if everyone did it, then there would be an ugly mess.  Kant is taught in all college philosophy departments to this day, though not for praising Christianity!

Finally, let’s recognize American contributions during the Enlightenment.  The great works were created by a group of people, affectionately known as the Founding Fathers.  These works include the Declaration of Independence (1776) with its statement of inalienable rights and a right to break the social contract with a ruler when he (the king) violates natural rights.  The United States Constitution (1787) gave the world a masterful design for government.  The Federalist Papers (1788), and particularly articles by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison (most notably No. 10) were also significant.

Finally, let’s recognize American contributions during the Enlightenment.  The greatest works in government were created by the Founding Fathers.  These works include the Declaration of Independence (1776) with its statement of inalienable rights and a right to break the social contract with a ruler when he (the king) violates natural rights.  The United States Constitution (1787) gave the world a masterful design for government.  The Federalist Papers (1788), and particularly articles by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison (most notably No. 10) were also significant.

==Capitalism==

==Capitalism==