Changes

But by this time the Catholic Church was in a deadly struggle with Protestantism, which was critical of Copernicus’s theory of the earth revolving around the sun.  Wars were being fought and soldiers were dying over religious differences.  In 1616, the Catholic Church officially prohibited teaching Copernicus’s theory as fact, although there was no objection to learning it as a mathematical theory.  Galileo, however, felt Copernicus was correct and wanted to teach his theory.  He had met with Pope Urban VIII on numerous occasions and felt that the Church would not object to Galileo’s publishing the Copernican theory about the universe.

But by this time the Catholic Church was in a deadly struggle with Protestantism, which was critical of Copernicus’s theory of the earth revolving around the sun.  Wars were being fought and soldiers were dying over religious differences.  In 1616, the Catholic Church officially prohibited teaching Copernicus’s theory as fact, although there was no objection to learning it as a mathematical theory.  Galileo, however, felt Copernicus was correct and wanted to teach his theory.  He had met with Pope Urban VIII on numerous occasions and felt that the Church would not object to Galileo’s publishing the Copernican theory about the universe.

There was no right of free speech in Italy at that time, and in 1632 Galileo published a work called “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World - Ptolemaic and Copernican” with the apparent approval of the Catholic Church.  Buyers and readers of the book were led to believe that Galileo’s reflected the official views of the Church, when they did not.  Galileo had received permission from a local cleric in Florence, but not from Church authorities in Rome, and they felt that Galileo knew that he was prohibited from claiming that the Church supported the Copernican view.

There was no right of free speech in Italy at that time, and in 1632 Galileo published a work called “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World - Ptolemaic and Copernican” with Galileo's claim that he had approval of the Catholic Church (an “imprimatur”).  Buyers and readers of the book were led to believe that Galileo’s reflected the official views of the Church, when they did not.  Galileo had received permission from a local cleric in Florence, but not from Church authorities in Rome, which would have been required for a work of that significance.  Moreover, the Church authorities in Rome felt that Galileo knew that he was prohibited from claiming that the Church supported the Copernican view.  This would be like a government official releasing a key military secret with the approval of his boss, but without the higher-level approval that would plainly be required for something significant.

Galileo also angered Church officials in the way that he mocked opponents of the Copernican system.  His “dialogue” was between a fictional Salviati, who supported the Copernican system, and an Aristotelian philosopher given the unflattering name “Simplicio”.  The simpled-minded “Simplicio” was made to look like the pope himself, and was mocked in the book for his skepticism about the Copernican system.

Galileo also angered Church officials in the way that his book mocked opponents of the Copernican system.  His “dialogue” was between a fictional Salviati, who supported the Copernican system, and an Aristotelian philosopher given the unflattering name “Simplicio”.  The simpled-minded “Simplicio” was made to look like the pope himself, and was mocked in the book for his skepticism about the Copernican system.

In the book’s climax, Salviati supposedly proves the Copernican system by citing the movement of the tides.  This was completely false and already disproved by Kepler.

In the book’s climax, Salviati supposedly proves the Copernican system by citing the movement of the tides.  This theory of Galileo’s was completely false and had already been disproved by Kepler.

Catholic Church officials were furious about this book and the Inquisition banned its sale.  Galileo was summoned to Rome.  Unlike Luther, Galileo remained a Catholic and fully accepted whatever judgment the Church would render against him.  His “trial” was a bit of a farce, probably put on for show more than anything, with Galileo living in plush quarters at all times.  At the end of the trial Galileo was required to live in a house where the Church could keep an eye on him, and was not imprisoned.  Galileo then continued his scientific work but was kept from embarrassing the Church further.  Galileo never split from the Church and completely accepted his punishment.

Catholic Church officials were furious about this book and the Inquisition banned its sale.  Galileo was summoned to Rome.  Unlike Luther, Galileo remained a Catholic and fully accepted whatever judgment the Church would render against him.  His “trial” was a bit of a farce, probably put on for show more than anything, with Galileo living in plush quarters at all times.  At the end of the trial Galileo was required to live in a house where the Church could keep an eye on him, and was not imprisoned.  Galileo then continued his scientific work but was kept from embarrassing the Church further.  Galileo never split from the Church and completely accepted his punishment.

There were other noteworthy scientists during this era.  [[Vesalius]] advanced the understanding of anatomy for medical doctors.  [[John Harvey]] explained the circulatory system in human anatomy.  [[Rene Descartes]] was a French mathematician and philosopher who discovered [[analytical geometry]] and famously declared, “I think, therefore I am.”  [[Francis Bacon]] promoted research based on experimentation.

There were other noteworthy scientists during this era.  [[Vesalius]] advanced the understanding of anatomy for medical doctors.  [[John Harvey]] explained the circulatory system in human anatomy.  [[Rene Descartes]] was a French mathematician and philosopher who discovered [[analytical geometry]] and famously declared, “I think, therefore I am.”  [[Francis Bacon]] promoted research based on experimentation.

Then there was Sir [[Isaac Newton]], who after Jesus Christ was perhaps the most influential man who ever lived.  If Newton were alive today, then he would be described as a Christian fundamentalist.  Everything Newton did was inspired and motivated by his powerful faith in the Word of God in the Bible.  Abandoned by his own mother, Newton had an [[inferiority complex]] that drove him to achieve more and more.  In one summer he discovered the laws of [[gravity]] and also [[calculus]], and the world has never been the same since.

In England there was Sir [[Isaac Newton]], who after Jesus Christ was perhaps the most influential man who ever lived.  If Newton were alive today, then he would be described as a Christian fundamentalist.  Everything Newton did was inspired and motivated by his powerful faith in the Word of God in the Bible.  Abandoned by his own mother, Newton had an [[inferiority complex]] that drove him to achieve more and more.  In one summer he discovered the laws of [[gravity]] and also [[calculus]], and the world has never been the same since.

Like most other men who made great advances in knowledge in world history, Newton discovered and explained something that was unseen:  the invisible force of gravity.  Newton proposed action-at-a-distance, whereby one object attracts another through an invisible force of gravity.  Newton was ridiculed for proposing that something unseen could act at a distance and influence something else millions of miles away from it.  Yet Newton was right.  Speaking of the world in which live, Newton once said, “Why not try to understand it?”  Newton understood it and explained it to the rest of us, and we are forever grateful.

Like most other men who made great advances in knowledge in world history, Newton discovered and explained something that was unseen:  the invisible force of gravity.  Newton proposed action-at-a-distance, whereby one object attracts another through an invisible force of gravity.  Newton was ridiculed for proposing that something unseen could act at a distance and influence something else millions of miles away from it.  Yet Newton was right.  Speaking of the world in which we live, Newton once said, “Why not try to understand it?”  Newton understood it and explained it to the rest of us, and we are forever grateful.

A German contemporary of Newton, Gottfried [[Leibniz]], deserves mention.  Like Newton, Leibniz was a devout Christian.  In fact, Leibniz was a Lutheran who dreamed of reuniting that denomination with the Catholic Church.  Leibniz was also a brilliant mathematician who developed calculus independent of Newton.  It was Leibniz, not Newton, who first published the notation for the integral:    f(x) dx.  An ugly dispute developed between Newton and Leibniz over who discovered calculus first.  Most English-speaking historians give the credit to Newton but bias may play a role in that.  The world certainly benefited immensely from Leibniz as well as Newton.

A German contemporary of Newton, Gottfried [[Leibniz]], deserves mention.  Like Newton, Leibniz was a devout Christian.  In fact, Leibniz was a Lutheran who dreamed of reuniting that denomination with the Catholic Church.  Leibniz was also a brilliant mathematician who developed calculus independent of Newton.  It was Leibniz, not Newton, who first published the notation for the integral:    f(x) dx.  But an ugly dispute developed between Newton and Leibniz over who discovered calculus first.  Most English-speaking historians give the credit to Newton but bias may play a role in that.  Regardless, the world benefited immensely from Leibniz as well as Newton.

==The Enlightenment==

==The Enlightenment==