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: ''This article describes the major [[epoch]]al event in the history of [[Israel]]. For the book of the [[Bible]] by this name, see [[Exodus]].''

: ''This article describes the mythical event of Hebrews leaving Egypt as described in the Book of Exodus. For the book itself, see [[Exodus_(Biblical_book)|Exodus]].''

[[Image:Egypt_David_Roberts.jpg|thumb|500px|[[Exodus of Israel|Exodus]] of the [[Israelites]] from Egypt by David Roberts (1830).]]The '''Exodus''' (Greek ''ex'' out of, outward and ''hodos'' a road or a way) is the abrupt embarkation of the people of [[Israel]] from [[Egypt]]. It is one of the key [[Epoch|epochal]] events in the history of the nation of Israel.

[[Image:Egypt_David_Roberts.jpg|thumb|500px|[[Exodus of Israel|Exodus]] of the [[Israelites]] from Egypt by David Roberts (1830).]]The '''Exodus''' (Greek ''ex'' out of, outward and ''hodos'' a road or a way) is the abrupt embarkation of the people of [[Israel]] from [[Egypt]]. It is one of the key [[Epoch|epochal]] events in the history of the nation of Israel.

== The Biblical Narrative ==

== The Biblical Narrative ==

The Book of [[Exodus]] is the best source we have, and the only complete source, for this event. (The reasons for this will be discussed below.) The following is a summary of that narrative.

The Book of [[Exodus]] is the the only complete source claiming to detail this event, but for various reasons a historical reconstruction based upon this is problematic, for reasons given below.

=== Background ===

=== Background Based on Biblical Account ===

Centuries earlier, [[Jacob]] had led his vast extended family into Egypt, eventually settling in the province of [[Goshen]]. The number of years is either 215 years ("short Sojourn)" or 430 years ("long Sojourn"). Jacob had done this at the invitation of his son [[Joseph]], whom he had thought dead but who, as it happened, had risen from being a common prisoner to senior prison trustee and eventually [[viceroy]] of Egypt. The story of Joseph, and especially his viceroyship and the circumstances under which he entered into it, is told [[Joseph#The_Viceroy|here]].

Centuries earlier, [[Jacob]] had led his vast extended family into Egypt, eventually settling in the province of [[Goshen]]. The number of years is either 215 years ("short Sojourn)" or 430 years ("long Sojourn"). Jacob had done this at the invitation of his son [[Joseph]], whom he had thought dead but who, as it happened, had risen from being a common prisoner to senior prison trustee and eventually [[viceroy]] of Egypt. The story of Joseph, and especially his viceroyship and the circumstances under which he entered into it, is told [[Joseph#The_Viceroy|here]].

The [[Pharaoh]] who welcomed Joseph was likely [[Sesostris I]]<ref name=Timing>Tas Walker, Steve Cardno and Jonathan Sarfati. "[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4190 Timing is Everything: A Talk with Field Archaeologist David Down]." ''Creation'' 27(3):30-35, June 2005.</ref>, the second ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty,<ref>Author unknown. "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066895/Sesostris-I Entry for Sesostris I]." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007 from Encyclopedia Britannica Online.</ref><ref>Kinnaer, Jacques. "[http://www.ancient-egypt.org/kings/12/1202_sesostris_i/history.html Entry on Sesostris I]." ''The Ancient Egypt Site'', 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.</ref><ref>Kjellen, Tore. "[http://lexicorient.com/e.o/sesostris_1.htm Entry for Sesostris I]." ''Encyclopedia of the Orient'' online, 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.</ref> Soon, however, two other Pharaohs, who were considerably harder of heart, succeeded to the throne: [[Sesostris III]] and his immediate successor [[Amenemhet III]].<ref name=Jaroncyk>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4812/ Jaroncyk, Ron]. "[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4857 Egyptian History and the Biblical Record: A Perfect Match]?" ''[http://www.creationontheweb.com/ Creation Ministries International],'' January 23, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2007.</ref> These two (or perhaps the latter of the two) set in motion a chain of events that led to the founding of one nation and a near-total disaster for the other.

The [[Pharaoh]] who welcomed Joseph may have been [[Sesostris I]]<ref name=Timing>Tas Walker, Steve Cardno and Jonathan Sarfati. "[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4190 Timing is Everything: A Talk with Field Archaeologist David Down]." ''Creation'' 27(3):30-35, June 2005.</ref>, the second ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty,<ref>Author unknown. "[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9066895/Sesostris-I Entry for Sesostris I]." ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007 from Encyclopedia Britannica Online.</ref><ref>Kinnaer, Jacques. "[http://www.ancient-egypt.org/kings/12/1202_sesostris_i/history.html Entry on Sesostris I]." ''The Ancient Egypt Site'', 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.</ref><ref>Kjellen, Tore. "[http://lexicorient.com/e.o/sesostris_1.htm Entry for Sesostris I]." ''Encyclopedia of the Orient'' online, 2007. Retrieved June 23, 2007.</ref> Soon, however, two other Pharaohs, who were considerably harder of heart, succeeded to the throne, and some believe were: [[Sesostris III]] and his immediate successor [[Amenemhet III]].<ref name=Jaroncyk>[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4812/ Jaroncyk, Ron]. "[http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4857 Egyptian History and the Biblical Record: A Perfect Match]?" ''[http://www.creationontheweb.com/ Creation Ministries International],'' January 23, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2007.</ref> These two (or perhaps the latter of the two) set in motion a chain of events that led to the founding of one nation and a disaster for the other.

=== The Mass Puericide ===

=== The Mass Puericide ===

In any event, so the Bible says, the Israelites multiplied more than ever.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=1|verses=12-14}}</ref> That's when Sesostris (or Amenemhet) raised the stakes. He ordered the two senior [[Hebrew]] [[midwife|midwives]] to make sure to kill all newborn boys, but to let newborn girls live.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=1|verses=16}}</ref> This is the first recorded instance of a governmental policy to use [[abortion]] or [[infanticide]] to accomplish [[genocide]].

In any event, so the Bible says, the Israelites multiplied more than ever.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=1|verses=12-14}}</ref> That's when Sesostris (or Amenemhet) raised the stakes. He ordered the two senior [[Hebrew]] [[midwife|midwives]] to make sure to kill all newborn boys, but to let newborn girls live.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=1|verses=16}}</ref> This is the first recorded instance of a governmental policy to use [[abortion]] or [[infanticide]] to accomplish [[genocide]].

The midwives did not openly defy Pharaoh's order. They simply didn't carry it out as he asked. They excused their behavior by saying that Hebrew women were often far advanced in parturition before the midwives even arrived to assist them. Pharaoh's response was as drastic as it was draconian: he ordered his soldiers to throw every boy-child into the [[Nile River]].

The midwives did not openly defy Pharaoh's order. They simply didn't carry it out as he asked. They excused their behaviour by saying that Hebrew women were often far advanced in parturition before the midwives even arrived to assist them. Pharaoh's response was as drastic as it was draconian: he ordered his soldiers to throw every boy-child into the [[Nile River]].

=== The Birth of Moses ===

=== The Birth of Moses ===

Jochebed solved the problem in a unique manner: she built a basket for the baby, coated the basket with pitch, placed Moses into it, and set it floating down the Nile. In this, Moses' journey recalled the voyage of [[Noah's Ark]].

Jochebed solved the problem in a unique manner: she built a basket for the baby, coated the basket with pitch, placed Moses into it, and set it floating down the Nile. In this, Moses' journey recalled the voyage of [[Noah's Ark]].

Eventually, Moses' little ark drifted into the waters outside the royal residence of the Pharaoh's daughter. She herself was infertile, and saw Moses as a substitute for the child she could never have. She gave the child the name Moses, which literally means ''drawn out'' in Egyptian and Hebrew.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=2|verses=1-10}}</ref>

Eventually, Moses' little ark drifted into the waters outside the Royal residence of the Pharaoh's daughter. She herself was infertile, and saw Moses as a substitute for the child she could never have. She gave the child the name Moses, which literally means ''drawn out'' in Egyptian and Hebrew.<ref>{{Bible ref|book=Exodus|chap=2|verses=1-10}}</ref>

The name of this daughter of Pharaoh was probably [[Sobekneferu]].<ref name=Jaroncyk/> In this connection, one must remember that female members of the royal family were always described in terms of their relationship to Pharaoh, e.g. "Pharaon's Wife" or "Pharaoh's Sister" or, as in this case, "Pharaoh's Daughter."<ref name=Tyldesley>Tyldesley, Joyce A. ''Hatchepsut: the Female Pharaoh''. New York: Penguin Books, 1998 (ISBN 0140244646).</ref>

The name of this daughter of Pharaoh was probably [[Sobekneferu]].<ref name=Jaroncyk/> In this connection, one must remember that female members of the royal family were always described in terms of their relationship to Pharaoh, e.g. "Pharaon's Wife" or "Pharaoh's Sister" or, as in this case, "Pharaoh's Daughter."<ref name=Tyldesley>Tyldesley, Joyce A. ''Hatchepsut: the Female Pharaoh''. New York: Penguin Books, 1998 (ISBN 0140244646).</ref>

=== The First Message ===

=== The First Message ===

Moses and Aaron initially came in peace to Pharaoh, and asked his leave to lead the Israelites into the desert for a three-day period. Pharaoh indignantly refused, and then issued an order that the Israelites would have to gather their own straw to make bricks, and still make the same quota of bricks. This caused the [[Israelite|Israelites]] to look on Moses with extreme disfavor. This was probably the lowest point ever in Moses' life.

Moses and Aaron initially came in peace to Pharaoh, and asked his leave to lead the Israelites into the desert for a three-day period. Pharaoh indignantly refused, and then issued an order that the Israelites would have to gather their own straw to make bricks, and still make the same quota of bricks. This caused the [[Israelite|Israelites]] to look on Moses with extreme disfavour. This was probably the lowest point ever in Moses' life.

But this was all part of God's plan--for God intended to demonstrate His Power in a manner that no one then alive would forget.

But this was all part of God's plan--for God intended to demonstrate His Power in a manner that no one then alive would forget.

=== The Ten Plagues ===

=== The Ten Plagues ===

: ''Main Article: [[Egyptian plagues]]''

: ''Main Article: [[Egyptian plagues]]''

Because Pharaoh would not accede to a polite request, Moses began issuing a series of threats of supernatural disaster, none of which Pharaoh heeded. Each of these disasters, called ''plagues'', was a direct strike at part of the Egyptian religious system and everything Egyptians held sacred.

Because Pharaoh would not accede his wishes, Moses began issuing a series of threats of supernatural disaster, which the Pharaoh dismissed. Each of these disasters, called ''plagues'', was a direct strike at part of the Egyptian religious system and everything the Egyptians held sacred.

=== The Evacuation and Despoliation ===

=== The Evacuation and Despoliation ===

Traditionally, this occurred at the northermnost tip of the [[Gulf of Suez]], the western arm of the [[Red Sea]]--though some have since suggested that the crossing actually occurred at the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] to the east.<ref name=Kovacs>Kovacs, Joe. "[http://wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=33168 Pharaoh's chariots found in Red Sea]?" ''[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/ WorldNetDaily.com],'' June 21, 2003. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref><ref name=Innerpeace>Petrovich, Michael, dir. "[http://www.cps.org.yu/Innerpeace/Creation/redsea.html Crossing of the Red Sea]." ''[http://www.cps.org.yu/Innerpeace/english.html Center for Natural Studies],'' n.d. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref>

Traditionally, this occurred at the northermnost tip of the [[Gulf of Suez]], the western arm of the [[Red Sea]]--though some have since suggested that the crossing actually occurred at the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] to the east.<ref name=Kovacs>Kovacs, Joe. "[http://wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=33168 Pharaoh's chariots found in Red Sea]?" ''[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/ WorldNetDaily.com],'' June 21, 2003. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref><ref name=Innerpeace>Petrovich, Michael, dir. "[http://www.cps.org.yu/Innerpeace/Creation/redsea.html Crossing of the Red Sea]." ''[http://www.cps.org.yu/Innerpeace/english.html Center for Natural Studies],'' n.d. Retrieved July 8, 2007.</ref>

No archaeologist has ever found the mortal remains of Neferhotep I. Furthermore, Neferhotep did not have a son to succeed him, but rather a brother, [[Sobekhotep IV]]. Shortly after Sobekhotep IV came to the throne, the Hyksos came in force, and occupied Egypt virtually without resistance.<ref name=Hyksos/>

No archaeologist has ever found the remains of Neferhotep I. Furthermore, Neferhotep did not have a son to succeed him, but rather a brother, [[Sobekhotep IV]]. Shortly after Sobekhotep IV came to the throne, the Hyksos entered Egypt.<ref name=Hyksos/> However, it should be noted that many Royal burials of the Second Intermediate Period, along with many temples, are known to have been looted by the Hyksos following several bitter campaigns fought against the 16th and 17th Theban Dynasties. In addition the 13th Dynasty itself was already weakened due to a rise in the power of provincial and noble families, and it was common for succession during the Second Intermediate Period not to follow the Hereditary Principle.

== Physical evidence of the Exodus ==

== Physical evidence of the Exodus ==

Egyptian history is of little to no help in substantiating the Exodus, much less dating it. The reason is that, to an Egyptian, history was not an objective inquiry into past events, but rather was a medium of [[propaganda]]. The willful destruction or defacement by succeeding Pharaohs of the monuments, stelae, and other records of his predecessors is a common theme in Egyptology.

No Egyptian texts of any kind, either Royal inscriptions, which may be interpreted as propagandistic, though generally do record the general theme of events, mention any events link conclusivly to the Exodus story. More significantly, no administrative documents point to it either, which are unconcerned with issues of a propaganda, being intended as purely internal documents for administrative purposes. No mention on either is made of a large amount of labourers being lost, nor of military manpower or equipment loss in subsequent pursuit.

In 2003, amateur diver Peter Elmer discovered coral-encrusted chariot wheels and other chariot parts submerged in the Gulf of Aqaba, the eastern offshoot of the great body of water called the Red Sea today.<ref name=Kovacs/> This is not, however, conclusive. The Biblical narrative indicates that the Israelites made their crossing far too soon for them to have successfully crossed the entire [[Sinai desert]] and peninsula to reach the Gulf of Aqaba. More likely, the Israelites crossed the Gulf of Suez--and the destruction of Neferhotep's army was so complete that not a single artifact was left. The Bible does, of course, say that not a single ''man'' was left of that army.

In 2003, amateur diver Peter Elmer claimed to have discovered coral-encrusted chariot wheels and other chariot parts submerged in the Gulf of Aqaba, the eastern offshoot of the great body of water called the Red Sea today.<ref name=Kovacs/>. This is not, however, conclusive, as no physical artefacts from this alleged find have ever been seen by professional archaeologists, nor recovered for professional analysis, recording and conservation. Photographs presented as evidence are inconclusive, and appear to show some coral formations common in the Gulf of Aqaba area and a modern metallic object. No other evidence has been presented. In addition, given the claim that these events occurred during the 13th Dynasty, the Egyptian army would not be deploying chariots, which do not appear in Egypt until the Hyksos period, and are not deployed by Egyptian forces until the end of that period. The amateur himself claims to have spoken to an SCA official who stated the parts to be 18th Dynasty, from the New Kingdom.

The revised chronology of David Down and John Ashton<ref name=Timing/> strongly suggests that the beginning of the Intermediate Period is the best time for the Exodus. By this scheme, the Hyksos overran Egypt when conditions could not have been more favorable to invaders: a country first devastated by multiple meterological, agricultural, and epidemiological disasters is suddenly deprived of its leader and its entire army in a single battle.

 

The revised chronology of David Down and John Ashton<ref name=Timing/> strongly suggests that the beginning of the Intermediate Period is the best time for the Exodus. By this scheme, the Hyksos overran Egypt when conditions could not have been more favourable to invaders: a country first devastated by multiple meterological, agricultural, and epidemiological disasters is suddenly deprived of its leader and its entire army in a single battle. This view, however, is not accepted by most Egyptologists.

== Chronological Placement of the Exodus ==

== Chronological Placement of the Exodus ==

# [[Thutmose I]] and [[Thutmose III]]. These scholars also identified Pharaoh's daughter as [[Hatshepsut]], the first woman ever to rule as Pharaoh in her own right.

# [[Thutmose I]] and [[Thutmose III]]. These scholars also identified Pharaoh's daughter as [[Hatshepsut]], the first woman ever to rule as Pharaoh in her own right.

Still other scholars have attempted to identify Moses with Amenhotep IV, also known as [[Akhenaton]], the "heretical Pharaoh" who tried to install a crude form of monotheism in his empire. However, a more likely scenario is that the actual Akhenaton took inspiration from Moses, though his understanding of Moses' religion was thoroughly mistaken.

Still other scholars have attempted to identify Moses with Amenhotep IV, also known as [[Akhenaten]], the "heretical Pharaoh" who attempted to force a monolatic (a form of monotheism) belief system upon Egypt. This view has no archaeological merit. Following the collapse of the Amarna regime, monotheism disappeared from the archaeological record until the early-mid first millennium BC.

== The Exodus in Popular Culture ==

== The Exodus in Popular Culture ==

The Exodus has been the subject of many [[motion picture]] and [[television]] projects over the last fifty years. Most of these projects contain extra-Biblical interpolations for which no Scriptural warrant and very little archaological warrant exists. For example, Scripture clearly says that when Moses killed the Egyptian taskmaster, he did so in secret and did not want that fact known--because he was not prepared to face the consequences. (Not every deed of a recognized hero and leader of the Hebrew people was a good or wise deed.) The various motion-picture projects that have treated this story have shown Moses behaving negligently or even recklessly in the killing of the Egyptian, and left out entirely the context in which Moses found out that his deed was no longer secret.

The Exodus has been the subject of many [[motion picture]] and [[television]] projects over the last fifty years. Most of these projects contain extra-Biblical interpolations for which no Scriptural or  archaeological warrant exists. For example, Scripture clearly says that when Moses killed the Egyptian taskmaster, he did so in secret and did not want that fact known--because he was not prepared to face the consequences. (Not every deed of a recognized hero and leader of the Hebrew people was a good or wise deed.) The various motion-picture projects that have treated this story have shown Moses behaving negligently or even recklessly in the killing of the Egyptian, and left out entirely the context in which Moses found out that his deed was no longer secret.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

More to the point, most of these projects have assumed that the Pharaoh of the Exodus was either Ramesses II or his son Merenptah. This supposition is based either on Late Date chronology or on [[Manetho]]'s initial mistake in assuming that all Dynasties of Egypt ran consecutively.

The Red Sea, though narrow, is an extension of the Rift Valley system, and is for the most part a deep sea. Even the Gulf of Suez, by far the shallowest geographic area of the Red Sea still is 200m deep in places. By contrast the Dover Strait is no more than 50m deep. Thus the idea of such waters being fordable by a people on foot and carrying goods is implausible, featuring wet sand, and sheer rock and sharp coral escarpments. The same reasons would likewise prevent the Egyptian army from being able to follow, especially with wheeled vehicles and horses, assuming a time period in which such equipment and animals were used.

== Related References ==

== Related References ==

[[Category:Old Testament]]

[[Category:Old Testament]]

[[Category:Egypt]]

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]

[[Category:Ancient History]]

[[Category:Ancient History]]