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The Seven Years War in Europe, of which the French and Indian War was a small part in North America, consisted of 20 major battles and ended up taking the lives of perhaps a million people.  Britain and France fought in both Europe and North America; Spain and Portugal fought in South America. The war reached every inhabited continent except Australia, which had been discovered in only the 1600s and was not yet well-settled by Europeans.  France, Russia, Sweden, Poland and Austria were allied against Britain and Prussia in the struggle for control of Silesia, a region of Eastern Europe that is mostly part of Poland today, though also extending into present-day Germany and the Czech Republic.   

The Seven Years War in Europe, of which the French and Indian War was a small part in North America, consisted of 20 major battles and ended up taking the lives of perhaps a million people.  Britain and France fought in both Europe and North America; Spain and Portugal fought in South America. The war reached every inhabited continent except Australia, which had been discovered in only the 1600s and was not yet well-settled by Europeans.  France, Russia, Sweden, Poland and Austria were allied against Britain and Prussia in the struggle for control of Silesia, a region of Eastern Europe that is mostly part of Poland today, though also extending into present-day Germany and the Czech Republic.   

Britain won the war, partly due to the genius of William Pitt, after whom Pittsburgh is named.  Britain gained both Canada and India as a result of the Seven Years War, but lost the American colonies two decades later in the Revolutionary War.  Pitt himself had left power before the war concluded (though he returned to power later); he opposed the peace treaty on the grounds it did not give enough to Britain.  France was humiliated by this war, which may have contributed to the French Revolution a few decades later.

Britain won the war, partly due to the genius of William Pitt, after whom Pittsburgh is named.  Britain gained both Canada and India as a result of the Seven Years War, but lost the American colonies two decades later in the Revolutionary War.  Pitt himself had left power before the war concluded (though he returned to power later); he opposed the peace treaty on the grounds that it did not give enough to Britain.  France was humiliated by this war, which may have contributed to the French Revolution a few decades later.

===The Slave Trade===

===The Slave Trade===

America had new fruits and vegetables that were then exported to Europe and Africa.  America introduced the white potato to Europe and the manioc or cassava to Africa.  Chili peppers, pumpkins, squash and peanuts were also brought back from America and became popular in countries such as India.  These new foods helped increase population, and in Africa the population growth almost canceled out population losses caused by the slave trade.

America had new fruits and vegetables that were then exported to Europe and Africa.  America introduced the white potato to Europe and the manioc or cassava to Africa.  Chili peppers, pumpkins, squash and peanuts were also brought back from America and became popular in countries such as India.  These new foods helped increase population, and in Africa the population growth almost canceled out population losses caused by the slave trade.

   

   

Slavery, though not considered part of the Columbian Exchange, became a hurtful form of trade.  In 1455, a “papal bull” (formal letter by the pope) justified a “right” of Christian nations to enslave any non-Christian in the name of exploration.  The Spanish had already been enslaving South American natives on a limited basis, but with the rise of sugar plantations the need for a larger slave force arose.  Millions of African slaves were brought by the Spanish and Portuguese to Mexico, Peru, the Caribbean and especially Brazil.  The growth of sugar — which had first been introduced to Europe when the Muslims ruled Spain — was exploding in popularity throughout the entire western world.  Soon France, the Netherlands and Great Britain were also establishing profitable sugar plantations in the new world.  The plantation system began in Brazil, where rich white plantation owners were the highest rung in the social hierarchy and black slaves were at the bottom.  Obviously life on a sugar plantation was very hard work for a slave.   

Slavery, though not considered part of the Columbian Exchange, became a hurtful form of trade.  In 1455, a “papal bull” (formal letter by the pope) justified a “right” of Christian nations to enslave any non-Christians in the name of exploration.  The Spanish had already been enslaving South American natives on a limited basis, but with the rise of sugar plantations the need for a larger slave force arose.  Millions of African slaves were brought by the Spanish and Portuguese to Mexico, Peru, the Caribbean and especially Brazil.  The growth of sugar — which had first been introduced to Europe when the Muslims ruled Spain — was exploding in popularity throughout the entire western world.  Soon France, the Netherlands and Great Britain were also establishing profitable sugar plantations in the new world.  The plantation system began in Brazil, where rich white plantation owners were the highest rung in the social hierarchy and the enslaved Africans were at the bottom.  Obviously life on a sugar plantation was very hard work for a slave.   

[[Slavery]] was widespread within Africa itself, and the richest in Africa were not those owning the most land, but those who owned the most slaves.  In the Sahara Desert, slaves worked in caravans and were used in gold and salt mining.  Slaves were usually prisoners of war from other areas of Africa, or debtors, or enemies or the king, but many women outside of those three categories were also enslaved in African societies.  Polygamy — the practice of having more than one wife — was common in Africa, as was the existence of harems, from which African women were often sold to join Arabian or Middle Eastern harems.   

[[Slavery]] was widespread within Africa itself, and the richest in Africa were not those owning the most land, but those who owned the most slaves.  In the Sahara Desert, slaves worked in caravans and were used in gold and salt mining.  Slaves were usually prisoners of war from other areas of Africa, or debtors, or enemies of the king, but many women outside of those three categories were also enslaved in African societies.  Polygamy — the practice of having more than one wife — was common in Africa, as was the existence of harems, from which African women were often sold to join Arabian or Middle Eastern harems.   

The trading of slaves with other countries was encouraged in Africa, and was considered an important component of the African economy.  Slave trade across the Atlantic (the Trans-Atlantic slave trade) became a booming business for Europeans and Africans alike, by which African rulers sold their people to Europeans for goods such as iron, alcohol, tobacco and most importantly, guns.  Trans-Atlantic trade led to the degrading use of “chattel” slaves, whereby the slaves were treated purely as property of the owner.  The slaves served as sailors, skilled craftsmen or farmers.  The journey across the Atlantic, known as the Middle Passage, led to the death of 10-20% of the African slaves.  But an even higher percentage lost their lives in the journey from their homes in Africa to the African coast, where they were to board the slave ships.  

The trading of slaves with other countries was encouraged in Africa, and was considered an important component of the African economy.  Slave trade across the Atlantic (the Trans-Atlantic slave trade) became a booming business for Europeans and Africans alike, by which African rulers sold their people to Europeans for goods such as iron, alcohol, tobacco and most importantly, guns.  Trans-Atlantic trade led to the degrading use of “chattel” slaves, whereby the slaves were treated purely as property of the owner.  The slaves served as sailors, skilled craftsmen or farmers.  The journey across the Atlantic, known as the Middle Passage, led to the death of 10-20% of the African slaves.  But an even higher percentage lost their lives in the journey from their homes in Africa to the African coast, where they were to board the slave ships.  

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was one component in a system of routes known as the “Triangular Trade” between the Caribbean islands or South America, and New England, and the West Coast of Africa.  The three main items that were exchanged were sugar, rum and slaves.  European goods, mainly guns, were used to buy slaves from Africa.  The slaves were then shipped to the Americas.  Then, from America, sugar, rum and tobacco were brought back to Europe, completing the “triangle” of trade.  No specific “triangle” of trade has ever been identified or even discussed at the time, and this concept may simply be the result of the imagination of modern historians.

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was one component in a system of routes known as the “Triangular Trade” between the Caribbean islands or South America, and New England, and the West Coast of Africa.  The three main items that were exchanged were sugar, rum and slaves.  European goods, mainly guns, were used to buy slaves from Africa.  The slaves were then shipped to the Americas.  Then, from America, sugar, rum and tobacco were brought back to Europe, completing the “triangle” of trade.  No specific “triangle” of trade has ever been identified or even discussed at the time, and this concept may simply be the result of the imagination of modern historians.

The end of slavery in Europe did not come until the beginning of the 1800s, when Christian reformers such as William Wilberforce and John Wesley began speaking out against the evils of the system. Although the United States banned slave trade in the early 1800s, slavery in the United States was not abolished until decades later in 1865 when the 13th Amendment was passed, and in South America it was finally ended in Brazil in 1888.

The end of slavery in Europe did not come until the beginning of the 1800s, when Christian reformers such as William Wilberforce and John Wesley began speaking out against the evils of the system. Although the United States banned the slave trade in the early 1800s, slavery in the United States was not abolished until decades later in 1865 when the 13th Amendment was passed, and in South America it was finally ended in Brazil in 1888.

===China’s Role in the Age of Exploration===

===China’s Role in the Age of Exploration===