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A remarkable Polish scientist named [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With this bold declaration, Copernicus began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

A remarkable Polish scientist named [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With this bold declaration, Copernicus began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

Copernicus worked for years on his book describing his theory, and did not publish it until near the very end of his life.  He entitled it, “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”), and published it in 1543.  The work was far from perfect:  Copernicus assumed that the planets moved in circular revolutions (they actually revolve in ellipses, though the orbit of the earth is nearly circular), and Copernicus also thought that the sun stood motionless as some kind of stationery temple in the universe.

Copernicus worked for years on his book describing his theory, and did not publish it until near the very end of his life.  He entitled it, “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”), and published it in 1543.  The work was far from perfect:  Copernicus assumed that the planets moved in circular revolutions (they actually revolve in ellipses, though the orbit of the earth is nearly circular), and Copernicus also thought that the sun stood motionless as some kind of stationery temple in the universe. He also thought the sun was at the center of the universe.

The reception to his work was initially positive within the Catholic Church, which Copernicus served, but Protestants who it conflicted with some literal interpretations of the Bible, such as the account of how Joshua benefited from the sun standing still as it passed over the earth.  “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher?  So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.”  Joshua 10:13.  There were few Protestants in Poland then (or now), and thus Copernicus died without much controversy.

The reception to his work was initially positive within the Catholic Church, which Copernicus served, but Protestants whose faith it conflicted with cited some literal interpretations of the Bible, such as the account of how Joshua benefited from the sun standing still as it passed over the earth.  “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher?  So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.”  Joshua 10:13.  There were few Protestants in Poland then (or now), and thus Copernicus died without much controversy.

[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630), a Protestant in Germany, built on Copernicus’s work and discovered that planets orbited the sun in ellipses rather than circular orbits.  Kepler was a brilliant mathematician, astronomer and devout Christian who cited God many times in all of his writings.  He felt it was his Christian duty to understand the creation of God, the universe.  He also felt that man, being in the image of God, was fully capable of understanding the universe.  Like Plato and Pythagoras, Kepler felt that God must have created the universe according to a mathematical plan.

[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630), a Protestant in Germany, built on Copernicus’s work and discovered that planets orbited the sun in ellipses rather than circular orbits.  Kepler was a brilliant mathematician, astronomer and devout Christian who cited God many times in all of his writings.  He felt it was his Christian duty to understand the creation of God, the universe.  He also felt that man, being in the image of God, was fully capable of understanding the universe.  Like Plato and Pythagoras, Kepler felt that God must have created the universe according to a mathematical plan.

But by this time the Catholic Church was in a deadly struggle with Protestantism, which was critical of Copernicus’s theory of the earth revolving around the sun.  Wars were being fought and soldiers were dying over religious differences.  In 1616, the Catholic Church officially prohibited teaching Copernicus’s theory as fact, although there was no objection to learning it as a mathematical theory.  Galileo, however, felt Copernicus was correct and wanted to teach his theory.  He had met with Pope Urban VIII on numerous occasions and felt that the Church would not object to Galileo’s publishing the Copernican theory about the universe.

But by this time the Catholic Church was in a deadly struggle with Protestantism, which was critical of Copernicus’s theory of the earth revolving around the sun.  Wars were being fought and soldiers were dying over religious differences.  In 1616, the Catholic Church officially prohibited teaching Copernicus’s theory as fact, although there was no objection to learning it as a mathematical theory.  Galileo, however, felt Copernicus was correct and wanted to teach his theory.  He had met with Pope Urban VIII on numerous occasions and felt that the Church would not object to Galileo’s publishing the Copernican theory about the universe.

There was no right of free speech in Italy at that time, and in 1632 Galileo published a work called “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World - Ptolemaic and Copernican” with Galileo's claim that he had approval of the Catholic Church (an “imprimatur”).  Buyers and readers of the book were led to believe that Galileo’s reflected the official views of the Church, when they did not.  Galileo had received permission from a local cleric in Florence, but not from Church authorities in Rome, which would have been required for a work of that significance.  Moreover, the Church authorities in Rome felt that Galileo knew that he was prohibited from claiming that the Church supported the Copernican view.  This would be like a government official releasing a key military secret with the approval of his boss, but without the higher-level approval that would plainly be required for something significant.

There was no right of free speech in Italy at that time, and in 1632 Galileo published a work called “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World - Ptolemaic and Copernican” with Galileo's claim that he had approval of the Catholic Church (an “imprimatur”).  Buyers and readers of the book were led to believe that Galileo’s views reflected the official views of the Church, when they did not.  Galileo had received permission from a local cleric in Florence, but not from Church authorities in Rome, which would have been required for a work of that significance.  Moreover, the Church authorities in Rome felt that Galileo knew that he was prohibited from claiming that the Church supported the Copernican view.  This would be like a government official releasing a key military secret with the approval of his boss, but without the higher-level approval that would plainly be required for something significant.

Galileo also angered Church officials in the way that his book mocked opponents of the Copernican system.  His “dialogue” was between a fictional Salviati, who supported the Copernican system, and an Aristotelian philosopher given the unflattering name “Simplicio”.  The simpled-minded “Simplicio” was made to look like the pope himself, and was mocked in the book for his skepticism about the Copernican system.

Galileo also angered Church officials in the way that his book mocked opponents of the Copernican system.  His “dialogue” was between a fictional Salviati, who supported the Copernican system, and an Aristotelian philosopher given the unflattering name “Simplicio”.  The simpled-minded “Simplicio” was made to look like the pope himself, and was mocked in the book for his skepticism about the Copernican system.