Changes

A remarkable Polish scientist named [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With this bold declaration, Copernicus began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

A remarkable Polish scientist named [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With this bold declaration, Copernicus began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

[[Image:Copernican model from book.jpg|right]]

[[Image:Copernican model from book.jpg|right]]

Copernicus worked for years on his book describing his theory, and did not publish it until near the very end of his life.  He entitled it, “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”), and published it in 1543.  The work was far from perfect:  Copernicus assumed that the planets moved in circular revolutions (they actually revolve in ellipses, though the orbit of the earth is nearly circular), and Copernicus also thought that the sun stood motionless as some kind of stationery temple in the universe. He also thought the sun was at the center of the universe.  A diagram from his book displaying circular planetary orbits around the sun is to the right.

Copernicus worked for years on his book describing his theory, and did not publish it until near the very end of his life.  He entitled it, “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”), and published it in 1543.  The work was far from perfect:  Copernicus assumed that the planets moved in circular revolutions (they actually revolve in ellipses, though the orbit of the earth is nearly circular), and Copernicus also thought that the sun stood motionless as some kind of stationery fixture in the universe (the sun actually moves rapidly too). He also thought the sun was at the center of the universe.  A diagram from his book displaying circular planetary orbits around the sun is to the right.

The reception to his work was initially positive within the Catholic Church, which Copernicus served, but Protestants whose faith it conflicted with cited some literal interpretations of the Bible, such as the account of how Joshua benefited from the sun standing still as it passed over the earth.  “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher?  So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.” Joshua 10:13.  There were few Protestants in Poland then (or now), and thus Copernicus died without much controversy.

The reception to his work was initially positive within the Catholic Church, which Copernicus served, but to Protestants it conflicted with literal interpretations of the Bible, such as the account of how Joshua benefited from the sun standing still as it passed over the earth.  “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher?  So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.”<ref>Joshua 10:13.</ref> There were few Protestants in Poland then (or now), and thus Copernicus died without much controversy.

[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630), a Protestant in Germany, built on Copernicus’s work and discovered that planets orbited the sun in ellipses rather than circular orbits.  Kepler was a brilliant mathematician, astronomer and devout Christian who cited God many times in all of his writings.  He felt it was his Christian duty to understand the creation of God, the universe.  He also felt that man, being in the image of God, was fully capable of understanding the universe.  Like Plato and Pythagoras, Kepler felt that God must have created the universe according to a mathematical plan.

[[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630), a Protestant in Germany, built on Copernicus’s work and discovered that planets orbited the sun in ellipses rather than circular orbits.  Kepler was a brilliant mathematician, astronomer and devout Christian who cited God many times in all of his writings.  He felt it was his Christian duty to understand the creation of God, the universe.  He also felt that man, being in the image of God, was fully capable of understanding the universe.  Like Plato and Pythagoras, Kepler felt that God must have created the universe according to a mathematical plan.

[[Galileo]] (1564-1642) was a contemporary of Kepler who lived in Catholic Italy.  Galileo was not as bright as Kepler or Copernicus, and was a bit of an entertaining showman who made a lively party guest.  He taught geometry to medical students so that they could use astronomy and astrology in the practice of medicine. Galileo’s primary scientific contribution was his improvement on the telescope in order to view celestial bodies.

[[Galileo]] (1564-1642) was a contemporary of Kepler who lived in Catholic Italy.  Galileo was not as bright as Kepler or Copernicus, and was a bit of an entertaining showman who made a lively party guest.  He taught geometry to medical students so that they could use astronomy and astrology in the practice of medicine! Galileo’s primary scientific contribution was his improvement on the telescope in order to view celestial bodies.

But by this time the Catholic Church was in a deadly struggle with Protestantism, which was critical of Copernicus’s theory of the earth revolving around the sun.  Wars were being fought and soldiers were dying over religious differences.  In 1616, the Catholic Church officially prohibited teaching Copernicus’s theory as fact, although there was no objection to learning it as a mathematical theory.  Galileo, however, felt Copernicus was correct and wanted to teach his theory.  He had met with Pope Urban VIII on numerous occasions and felt that the Church would not object to Galileo’s publishing the Copernican theory about the universe.

But by this time the Catholic Church was in a deadly struggle with Protestantism, which was critical of Copernicus’s theory of the earth revolving around the sun.  Wars were being fought and soldiers were dying over religious differences.  In 1616, the Catholic Church officially prohibited teaching Copernicus’s theory as fact, although there was no objection to learning it as a mathematical theory.  Galileo, however, felt Copernicus was correct and wanted to teach his theory.  He had met with Pope Urban VIII on numerous occasions and felt that the Church would not object to Galileo’s publishing the Copernican theory about the universe.

There was no right of free speech in Italy at that time, and in 1632 Galileo published a work called “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World - Ptolemaic and Copernican” with Galileo's claim that he had approval of the Catholic Church (an “imprimatur”).  Buyers and readers of the book were led to believe that Galileo’s views reflected the official views of the Church, when they did not.  Galileo had received permission from a local cleric in Florence, but not from Church authorities in Rome, which would have been required for a work of that significance.  Moreover, the Church authorities in Rome felt that Galileo knew that he was prohibited from claiming that the Church supported the Copernican view.  This would be like a government official releasing a key military secret with the approval of his boss, but without the higher-level approval that would plainly be required for something significant.

There was no right of free speech in Italy at that time, and in 1632 Galileo published a work called “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief Systems of the World - Ptolemaic and Copernican” containing Galileo's claim that he had approval of the Catholic Church (an “imprimatur”).  Buyers and readers of the book were led to believe that Galileo’s views reflected the official views of the Church, when they did not.  Galileo had received permission from a local cleric in Florence, but not from Church authorities in Rome, which would have been required for a work of that significance.  Moreover, the Church authorities in Rome felt that Galileo knew that he was prohibited from claiming that the Church supported the Copernican view.  This would be like a government official releasing a key military secret with the approval of his boss, but without the higher-level approval that would obviously be required for something extremely significant.

Galileo also angered Church officials in the way that his book mocked opponents of the Copernican system.  His “dialogue” was between a fictional Salviati, who supported the Copernican system, and an Aristotelian philosopher given the unflattering name “Simplicio”.  The simpled-minded “Simplicio” was made to look like the pope himself, and was mocked in the book for his skepticism about the Copernican system.

Galileo also angered Church officials in the way that his book mocked opponents of the Copernican system.  His “dialogue” was between a fictional Salviati, who supported the Copernican system, and an Aristotelian philosopher given the unflattering name “Simplicio”.  The simpled-minded “Simplicio” was made to look like the pope himself, and was mocked in the book for his skepticism about the Copernican system.

In the book’s climax, Salviati supposedly proves the Copernican system by citing the movement of the tides.  This theory of Galileo’s was completely false and had already been disproved by Kepler.

In the book’s climax, Salviati supposedly proves the Copernican system by citing the movement of the tides.  This theory of Galileo’s was completely false and had already been disproved by Kepler.

Catholic Church officials were furious about this book and the Inquisition banned its sale.  Galileo was summoned to Rome.  Unlike Luther, Galileo remained a Catholic and fully accepted whatever judgment the Church would render against him.  His “trial” was a bit of a farce, probably put on for show more than anything, with Galileo living in plush quarters at all times.  At the end of the trial Galileo was required to live in a house where the Church could keep an eye on him during the controversy, much as the American government interned Japanese Americans during World War II.<ref>This internment during wartime was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in ''[[Korematsu v. United States]]''</ref>  Galileo was not imprisoned.  Galileo then continued his scientific work but was kept from embarrassing the Church further.  Galileo never split from the Church and completely accepted his punishment.

Catholic Church officials were furious about this book and the Inquisition banned its sale.  Galileo was summoned to Rome.  Unlike Luther, Galileo remained a Catholic and fully accepted whatever judgment the Church would render against him.  His “trial” was a bit of a farce, probably put on for show more than anything, with Galileo living in plush quarters at all times.  At the end of the trial Galileo was required to live in a house where the Church could keep an eye on him during the controversy, much as the American government interned Japanese Americans during World War II to keep an eye on them.<ref>This internment during wartime was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in ''[[Korematsu v. United States]]'', but is controversial today.</ref>  Galileo was not imprisoned.  Galileo then continued his scientific work but was kept from embarrassing the Church further.  Galileo never split from the Church and completely accepted his punishment.

There were other noteworthy scientists during this era.  [[Vesalius]] advanced the understanding of anatomy for medical doctors.  [[John Harvey]] explained the circulatory system in human anatomy.  [[Rene Descartes]] was a French mathematician and philosopher who discovered [[analytical geometry]] and famously declared, “I think, therefore I am.”  [[Francis Bacon]] promoted research based on experimentation.

There were other noteworthy scientists during this era.  [[Vesalius]] advanced the understanding of anatomy for medical doctors.  [[John Harvey]] explained the circulatory system in human anatomy.  [[Rene Descartes]] was a French mathematician and philosopher who discovered [[analytical geometry]] and famously declared, “I think, therefore I am.”  [[Francis Bacon]] promoted research based on experimentation.

In England there was Sir [[Isaac Newton]], who after Jesus Christ was perhaps the most influential man who ever lived.  If Newton were alive today, then he would be described as a Christian fundamentalist.  Everything Newton did was inspired and motivated by his powerful faith in the Word of God in the Bible.  Abandoned by his own mother, Newton had an [[inferiority complex]] that drove him to achieve more and more.  In one summer he discovered the laws of [[gravity]] and also [[calculus]], and the world has never been the same since.

In England there was Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1643-1727), who after Jesus Christ was perhaps the most influential man who ever lived.  If Newton were alive today, then he would be described as a Christian fundamentalist.  Everything Newton did was inspired and motivated by his powerful faith in the Word of God in the Bible.  Abandoned by his own mother, Newton had an [[inferiority complex]] that drove him to achieve more and more.  In one summer he discovered the laws of [[gravity]] and also [[calculus]], and the world has never been the same since.

Like most other men who made great advances in knowledge in world history, Newton discovered and explained something that was unseen:  the invisible force of gravity.  Newton proposed action-at-a-distance, whereby one object attracts another through an invisible force of gravity.  Newton was ridiculed for proposing that something unseen could act at a distance and influence something else millions of miles away from it.  Yet Newton was right.  Speaking of the world in which we live, Newton once said, “Why not try to understand it?”  Newton understood it and explained it to the rest of us, and we are forever grateful.

Like most other men who made great advances in knowledge in world history, Newton discovered and explained something that was unseen:  the invisible force of gravity.  Newton proposed action-at-a-distance, whereby one object attracts another through an invisible force of gravity.  Newton was ridiculed for proposing that something unseen could act at a distance and influence something else millions of miles away from it.  Yet Newton was right.  Speaking of the world in which we live, Newton once said, “Why not try to understand it?”  Newton understood it and explained it to the rest of us, and we are forever grateful.