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==Costs and insurance==
==Costs and insurance==
The costs of hospital care were rising, and in 1933 the American Hospital Association recommended prepaid nonprofit hospital insurance (Blue Cross), initiating a new pattern of prepayment for health-related expenses. There was a massive growth of a private health industry in the United States during the 1940s-1950s, in contrast to the public health insurance programs implemented in Western Europe and Canada. Rising family income and tax policies encouraged a close link between employment and health insurance, thus promoting insurance. On the supply side, hospitals sought to stabilize fluctuating income through prepayment plans that later became Blue Cross. Doctors, although adamantly opposed to government insurance, formed Blue Shield plans. These two created a new supply of health insurance and demonstrated the viability of the private health insurance model, stimulating competitor companies and increasing consumer purchase of health insurance.<ref> Melissa A. Thomasson, "From Sickness To Health: The Twentieth-Century Development of U.S. Health Insurance." ''Explorations in Economic History'' 2002 39(3): 233-253. 0014-4983 </ref>
The costs of hospital care were rising, and in 1933 the American Hospital Association recommended prepaid nonprofit hospital insurance (Blue Cross), initiating a new pattern of prepayment for health-related expenses. There was a massive growth of a private health industry in the United States during the 1940s-1950s, in contrast to the public health insurance programs implemented in Western Europe and Canada. Rising family income and tax policies encouraged a close link between employment and health insurance, thus promoting insurance. On the supply side, hospitals sought to stabilize fluctuating income through prepayment plans that later became Blue Cross. Doctors, although adamantly opposed to government insurance, formed Blue Shield plans. These two created a new supply of health insurance and demonstrated the viability of the private health insurance model, stimulating competitor companies and increasing consumer purchase of health insurance.<ref> Melissa A. Thomasson, "From Sickness To Health: The Twentieth-Century Development of U.S. Health Insurance." ''Explorations in Economic History'' 2002 39(3): 233-253. 0014-4983 </ref>
Political battles over the federal role in health financed continued, with the major change coming in 1965, when Lydon Johnson's "[[Great Society]]" created Medicare, that is low-cost hospital care for Social Security recipients. Actual costs of Medicare proved much higher than predicted, making it a major element of the federal budget.
Political battles over the federal role in health financed continued, with the major change coming in 1965, when Lydon Johnson's "[[Great Society]]" created Medicare, that is low-cost hospital care for Social Security recipients. Actual costs of Medicare proved much higher than predicted, making it a major element of the federal budget.
===Multiple roles===
===Multiple roles===
After World War II the hospital began to assume a new role as community health center, for the outpatient department and the emergency room became a substitute for the rapidly vanishing general practitioner to whom families had formerly turned for help. At the same time, the increasing expensiveness of medical care stimulated attempts to economize by creating new forms of health delivery systems, such as health maintenance organizations, which build and operate their own hospitals to serve their prepaid members. �
After World War II the hospital began to assume a new role as community health center, for the outpatient department and the emergency room became a substitute for the rapidly vanishing general practitioner to whom families had formerly turned for help. At the same time, the increasing expensiveness of medical care stimulated attempts to economize by creating new forms of health delivery systems, such as health maintenance organizations, which build and operate their own hospitals to serve their prepaid members.
By 1973 the 7,000, existing hospitals had grown much larger, with 1.65 million beds.
By 1973 the 7,000, existing hospitals had grown much larger, with 1.65 million beds.
==Best rated==
The annual ''U.S. news'' rating of hospitals gives the top dozen in 2009:<ref>see [http://health.usnews.com/sections/health/best-hospitals rankings March 22, 2009] </ref>
*1 Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore
*2 Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
*3 Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, Los Angeles
*4 Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland Ohio
*5 Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston
*6 New York-Presbyterian University Hospital, New York
*7 UCSF Medical Center, San Francisco
*8 Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston
*8 Duke University Medical Center
*10 Hospital of the Univ. of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
*10 University of Washington Medical Center, Seattle
*12 Barnes-Jewish Hospital/ Washington University. St Louis
==Further reading==
==Further reading==
* Risse, Guenter B. ''Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals.'' (1999). 716 pp. standard scholarly history
* Risse, Guenter B. ''Mending Bodies, Saving Souls: A History of Hospitals.'' (1999). 716 pp. standard scholarly history
* Rosenberg, Charles. ''The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System'' (1987) 456 pp [http://www.amazon.com/Care-Strangers-Americas-Hospital-System/dp/0801850827/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1237708571&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Rosenberg, Charles. ''The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America's Hospital System'' (1987) 456 pp [http://www.amazon.com/Care-Strangers-Americas-Hospital-System/dp/0801850827/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1237708571&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Starr, Paul. ''The Social Transformation of American Medicine'' (1982) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-social-transformation-of-american-medicine-by-paul-starr.jsp online edition]
* Stevens, Rosemary. ''In Sickness and in Wealth: American Hospitals in the Twentieth Century.'' (1989). 432 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Sickness-Wealth-American-Hospitals-Twentieth/dp/0801860490 excerpt and text search]
* Stevens, Rosemary. ''In Sickness and in Wealth: American Hospitals in the Twentieth Century.'' (1989). 432 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Sickness-Wealth-American-Hospitals-Twentieth/dp/0801860490 excerpt and text search]
* Vogel, Morris. ''The Invention of the Modern Hospital: Boston, 1870-1930'' (1980).
===Specialized studies===
===Specialized studies===
* Abel-Smith, Brian. ''The Hospitals, 1800-1948: A Study in Social Administration in England and Wales'' (1967)
* Beardsley, E. H. "Good-Bye to Jim Crow: The Desegregation of Southern Hospitals, 1945-70." ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'' 1986 60(3): 367-386.
* Commission on Hospital Care. ''Hospital Care in the United States'' (1947), for 1940s
* Corwin, E.H.L. ''The American Hospital'' (1946), for the 1940s
* Finzsch, Norbert and Jütte, Robert, eds. ''Institutions of Confinement: Hospitals, Asylums, and Prisons in Western Europe and North America, 1500-1950.'' (1996). 369 pp.
* Finzsch, Norbert and Jütte, Robert, eds. ''Institutions of Confinement: Hospitals, Asylums, and Prisons in Western Europe and North America, 1500-1950.'' (1996). 369 pp.
* Henderson, John. ''The Renaissance Hospital: Healing the Body and Healing the Soul.'' (2006) 492 pp.
* Henderson, John. ''The Renaissance Hospital: Healing the Body and Healing the Soul.'' (2006) 492 pp.
* Opdycke, Sandra. ''No One Was Turned Away: The Role of Public Hospitals in New York City since 1900.'' (1999). 244 pp.
* Opdycke, Sandra. ''No One Was Turned Away: The Role of Public Hospitals in New York City since 1900.'' (1999). 244 pp.
* Rice, Mitchell F. and Woodrow Jones Jr.''Public Policy and the Black Hospital: From Slavery to Segregation to Integration'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/read/27438297?title=Public%20Policy%20and%20the%20Black%20Hospital%3a%20From%20Slavery%20to%20Segregation%20to%20Integration online edition]
* Rice, Mitchell F. and Woodrow Jones Jr.''Public Policy and the Black Hospital: From Slavery to Segregation to Integration'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/read/27438297?title=Public%20Policy%20and%20the%20Black%20Hospital%3a%20From%20Slavery%20to%20Segregation%20to%20Integration online edition]
* Rosner, David. ''A Once Charitable Enterprise: Hospitals and Health Care in Brooklyn and New York, 1885-1915'' (1982).
* Schultz, Jane E. ''Women at the Front: Hospital Workers in Civil War America.'' (2004) 360pp.
* Schultz, Jane E. ''Women at the Front: Hospital Workers in Civil War America.'' (2004) 360pp.
===Specific hospitals===
===Specific hospitals===
* Carson, Carolyn Leonard. ''Healing Body, Mind, and Spirit: The History of the St. Francis Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.'' (1995). 246 pp.
* Carson, Carolyn Leonard. ''Healing Body, Mind, and Spirit: The History of the St. Francis Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.'' (1995). 246 pp.
* Castleman, Benjamin; Crockett, David C.; and Sutton, S. B. ''The Massachusetts General Hospital 1955-1980.'' (1983). 410 pp.
* Clapesattle, Helen. ''The Doctors Mayo'' (1941),
* Connor, J. T. H. ''Doing Good: The Life of Toronto's General Hospital.'' (2000). 342 pp.
* Connor, J. T. H. ''Doing Good: The Life of Toronto's General Hospital.'' (2000). 342 pp.
* Green, Carol C. ''Chimborazo: The Confederacy's Largest Hospital.'' (2004) 200pp.
* Green, Carol C. ''Chimborazo: The Confederacy's Largest Hospital.'' (2004) 200pp.