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'''Kulturkampf''' ("culture war" in English), which lasted from 1871 to 1887, was [[Otto von Bismarck's]] unsuccessful effort to break the independent power of the Roman Catholic Church in the newly unified Germany. It was caused, not  by Catholic actions or threats, but by the anxiety of  Germany's Lutheran and Reformed elites faced with the sudden emergence  of mass politics in which the Catholics could for the first time play a major role in politics.

'''Kulturkampf''' ("culture war" in English), which lasted from 1871 to 1887, was [[Otto von Bismark's]] unsuccessful effort to break the independent power of the Roman Catholic Church in the newly unified Germany. It was caused, not  by Catholic actions or threats, but by the anxiety of  Germany's Lutheran and Reformed elites faced with the sudden emergence  of mass politics in which the Catholics could for the first time play a major role in politics.

The arrest and imprisonment of dissident bishops was unpopular and ineffective. Resistors among the parish clergy experienced much harsher imprisonment, but remained steadfast in their opposition. The Prussian legal system was too cumbersome and the police force was too small to handle the massive numbers of resistors, while the army provided ineffectual support. Moreover, the Catholic laity stalwartly supported the Catholic Church. Ultimately Bismarck failed because he lacked the will to employ more extreme measures.  

The arrest and imprisonment of dissident bishops was unpopular and ineffective. Resistors among the parish clergy experienced much harsher imprisonment, but remained steadfast in their opposition. The Prussian legal system was too cumbersome and the police force was too small to handle the massive numbers of resistors, while the army provided ineffectual support. Moreover, the Catholic laity stalwartly supported the Catholic Church. Ultimately Bismarck failed because he lacked the will to employ more extreme measures.  

Severe methods were used especially in the Polish Catholic areas in the east that Germany had annexed with the division of [[Poland]] in the 1790s.   

Severe methods were used especially in the Polish Catholic areas in the east that Germany had annexed with the division of [[Poland]] in the 1790s.   

==Politics==

==Politics==

The  Kulturkampf caused a massive political  mobilization of Catholics. Before the Kulturkampf, there was little connection between  Catholicism and political conservatism.  

The  Kulturkampf caused a massive political  mobilization of Catholics. Before the Kulturkampf, there was little connection between  Catholicism and political conservatism. In response to the attacks by the government, the Catholics rallied almost unanimously to the new "Center Party", which remained a major force until 1933.

==Education==

==Education==

Bismark's "School Supervision Law of 1872" and the administration of Adalbert Falk as minister of education from 1872 to 1879 was a key element of the Kulturkampf in Prussia. Bismark's goal was to weaken the power of the Catholic Church by replacing religious supervisors with secular ones in the schools. Liberal<ref>In the 19th century sense.</ref> Protestant school teachers and administrators supported the reform because they believed educational benefits would come from the change. Because the new secular supervisors were used primarily in Catholic schools, priests saw the reform as a political whip. The resulting radicalization of the priests offset any positive benefits of the reform.<ref> Marjorie Lamberti, "State, Church, and the Politics of School Reform during the Kulturkampf." ''Central European History'' 1986 19(1): 63-81. </ref>  

Bismark's "School Supervision Law of 1872" and the administration of Adalbert Falk as minister of education from 1872 to 1879 was a key element of the Kulturkampf in Prussia. Bismark's goal was to weaken the power of the Catholic Church by replacing religious supervisors with secular ones in the schools. Liberal<ref>In the 19th century sense.</ref> Protestant school teachers and administrators supported the reform because they believed educational benefits would come from the change. Because the new secular supervisors were used primarily in Catholic schools, priests saw the reform as a political whip. The resulting radicalization of the priests offset any positive benefits of the reform.<ref> Marjorie Lamberti, "State, Church, and the Politics of School Reform during the Kulturkampf." ''Central European History'' 1986 19(1): 63-81. </ref>  

* Anderson, Margaret Lavinia.  "The Kulturkampf and the Course of German History". ''Central European History'' 1986 19(1): 82-115.  emphasizes the impact on Catholic voters

* Anderson, Margaret Lavinia.  "The Kulturkampf and the Course of German History". ''Central European History'' 1986 19(1): 82-115.  emphasizes the impact on Catholic voters

* Blackbourn, David. "Progress and Piety: Liberalism, Catholicism and the State in Imperial Germany." ''History Workshop Journal'' [Great Britain] 1988 (26): 57-78.  

* Blackbourn, David. "Progress and Piety: Liberalism, Catholicism and the State in Imperial Germany." ''History Workshop Journal'' [Great Britain] 1988 (26): 57-78.  

* Ross, Ronald J. "The Kulturkampf and the Limitations of Power in Bismarck's Germany." ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 1995 46(4): 669-688.  

* Ross, Ronald J. "The Kulturkampf and the Limitations of Power in Bismarck's Germany." ''Journal of Ecclesiastical History'' 1995 46(4): 669-688.  

* Trzeciakowski, Lech. ''The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland.'' (1990). 223 pp.

* Trzeciakowski, Lech. ''The Kulturkampf in Prussian Poland.'' (1990). 223 pp.