Changes

=== Laissez-faire, or Regulation? ===

=== Laissez-faire, or Regulation? ===

The “laissez-faire” economists like Adam Smith wanted the government to stay out of business.  They felt that the “invisible hand” would produce the best outcome, and that supply and demand would be far better at allocating resources to their best use than government regulation could.     

The “laissez-faire” economists like Adam Smith wanted the government to stay out of business.  They felt that the “invisible hand” would produce the best outcome, and that supply and demand would be far better at allocating resources to their best use than government planning or regulation could.     

David Ricardo (1772-1823), was a pessimistic British economist most famous for developing the theory of comparative advantage.  He explained that it was advantageous for England to produce cloth and Portugal to produce wine even though Portugal might have produced both wine and cloth at a lower cost than England did, as long as there was free trade between the two countries.  However, David Ricardo also proposed incorrect theories like the gloomy “iron law of wages,” which claimed that wages would never rise above the bare minimum necessary to sustain a worker.  Opponents of Adam Smith and free enterprise used some of these incorrect theories later to argue for government regulation of business.

Inspired by Adam Smith, classical economics is the economic theory emphasizing self-interest along with the operation of basic economic principles.  For example, classical economics predicts full employment if the government does not interfere by requiring minimum wage laws or other imposing other regulations.  In addition to Adam Smith, leading proponents of classical economics included David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, Jean Baptiste Say, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill.  They advocated “capitalism”, by which ownership of private property helps create profits for the owners and greater wealth for all of society.  We next describe several of the more important “classical economists.”

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was another British classical economist, but he was so pessimistic that he caused the entire field of economics to be called “the dismal science,” such that failure and collapse of the economy are supposed to be inevitable.  Malthus insisted that population increases by the geometric ratio but that the means of subsistence only increases by the arithmetic ratio, and thus population will outgrow the food supply and many will die (unless a war kills them first!).  This was completely false as even the poorest countries like India produce far more food than they can consume, and obesity is a bigger problem than hunger today.

David Ricardo (1772-1823), was a pessimistic British economist most famous for developing the theory of “comparative advantage” to support more trade between nation.  He explained that it might be advantageous for England to produce cloth and Portugal to produce wine, and to trade to obtain what each lacks, even though Portugal might have produced both wine and cloth at a lower cost than England could.  This would be true, for example, if Portugal is particularly good at producing wine, perhaps because of its climate or expertise; Portugal and England would be better off if Portugal spent all its time and money producing wine for both nations.  (This insight is similar to the concept of “do what you do best”).

The last of the English classical economists was John Stuart Mill (1806-1873).  Homeschooled in an atheistic way by his father, Mill supported laissez-faire but with social reforms like redistribution of wealth, shorter working days, and regulation of monopolies.  Today he would be called a “moderate conservative” due to his support of some government controls over the economy.  Mill was ahead of his time in advocating the development of labor unions and farm cooperatives, and emancipation (voting) by women.  He sympathized with the North in the American Civil War.  In his book “On Liberty,” Mill advocated that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.”  Mill also advocated utilitarianism, a concept previously proposed by the atheist Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832).  Utilitarianism means that government should do whatever maximizes overall “utility” (benefits minus costs).  If killing one innocent man saves ten other lives, then utilitarianism would favor it.  Under utilitarianism there is no Christian morality, and it is replaced by comparing benefits versus costs.  Under this view government should experiment on embryonic stem cells today if benefits are greater than costs. Mill admitted that his longtime love for a particular woman, who was married to another man for many years, influenced his view of morality.

 

 

 

The last of the English classical economists was John Stuart Mill (1806-1873).  Homeschooled in an atheistic way by his father, Mill supported laissez-faire but with social reforms like redistribution of wealth, shorter working days, and regulation of monopolies.  Today he would be called a “moderate conservative” due to his support of some government controls over the economy.  Mill was ahead of his time in advocating the development of labor unions and farm cooperatives, and emancipation (voting) by women.   

 

Mill advocated utilitarianism, a concept previously proposed by the atheist Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832).  Utilitarianism means that government should do whatever maximizes overall “utility” (benefits minus costs).  If killing one innocent man saves ten other lives, then utilitarianism would favor it.  Under utilitarianism there is no Christian morality, and it is replaced by comparing benefits versus costs.  Under this view government should experiment on embryonic stem cells today if benefits are greater than costs.<ref>Mill admitted that his longtime love for a particular woman, who was married to another man for many years, influenced his views about morality, which depart from the Christian view.</ref>  In another book ''On Liberty'', Mill advocated that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others,” which is also contrary to most Christian views.

   

   

There were other new ideas during this time, not all of them good.  There was “utopian socialism,” which English and French philosophers proposed.  In England Robert Owen (1771-1858) was the leading proponent, while in France Charles Fourier (1772-1837) was the leader.  They suggested the creation of self-contained communities in which the government owned the instruments of production (e.g., land and money) and politics was run by a voluntary, democratic process.  The notion of “socialism” for everyone, not just self-contained communities, also developed as a so-called reform of capitalism.  Under socialism, government owns or controls many factors of production, including business property and money, and also controls the distribution of goods.  The invisible hand is replaced by government control, supposedly for the common good.  Workers are able to keep what they make as needed to survive.   

 

There were other new ideas during this time, not all of them good.  There was “utopian socialism,” which English and French philosophers proposed.  In England, Robert Owen (1771-1858) was the leading proponent, while in France Charles Fourier (1772-1837) was the leader.  They suggested the creation of self-contained communities in which the government owned the instruments of production (e.g., land and money) and politics was run by a voluntary, democratic process.   

 

This led to the notion of “socialism” for everyone, not just self-contained communities, also developed as a so-called reform of capitalism.  Under socialism, government owns or controls many factors of production, including business property and money, and also controls the distribution of goods.  The invisible hand is replaced by government control, supposedly for the common good.  Workers are able to keep what they make as needed to survive.   

 

German thinkers named Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were about to move to England, promoted the radical idea that all private property should be eliminated and that society would be better off under “communism”.  Karl Marx published these ideas in 1848 in a booklet called “The Communist Manifesto.”  “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class [economic] struggles,” Marx declared in that book.  Later he developed a motto for communism: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”  Marx predicted that the proletariat (working class) would overthrow the wealthy in a capitalistic society, and then establish a new system that would be socialism in its early stage and pure communism in its later stage.  

German thinkers named Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were about to move to England, promoted the radical idea that all private property should be eliminated and that society would be better off under “communism”.  Karl Marx published these ideas in 1848 in a booklet called “The Communist Manifesto.”  “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class [economic] struggles,” Marx declared in that book.  Later he developed a motto for communism: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”  Marx predicted that the proletariat (working class) would overthrow the wealthy in a capitalistic society, and then establish a new system that would be socialism in its early stage and pure communism in its later stage.  

It was for political reasons that Darwin’s theory, aided by frauds like the Piltdown Man, crept into schools in England, Germany and the United States.  As a fellow Englishman, Darwin is promoted heavily in England and even buried next to Isaac Newton.  Germany also promoted the theory of evolution heavily until the Darwinists engaged in racial cleansing and experimentation to “perfect” the Aryan race under Adolf Hitler.  In the United States, evolution has been taught in public schools for nearly 100 years, yet 90% of Americans continue to reject the theory as it is being taught.

Another Englishman, Charles Darwin (1809-1882), promoted a theory of evolution.  Darwin’s own family considered him to be a disgrace, and felt that way even before he failed at an attempt to become a doctor.  His father later sought for him to become an Anglican parson (pastor), but Darwin abandoned the Christian faith instead.  He was unable to earn a degree in science and he struggled in scientific subjects such as physics (and math).  But after collecting some plant and animal specimens on a voyage (on the H.M.S. Beagle ship) around the world, in 1859 Darwin published a radical (and racist) book entitled ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life''.  It proposed that species had evolved into complex forms of life over millions of years through “natural selection.”  Darwin had not observed any transitional forms (fossils reflecting evolution between species), and said his theory would fail if no transitional forms were found.  None were found, but his theory is still taught.

The link between Darwinism, atheism and politics was strong in the late 1800s and even stronger today.  Beginning in 1887, social scientists were using the term “social Darwinism” to apply a barbaric survival-of-the-fittest theory to social situations.  Under this theory, the wealthiest or most powerful in society must be biologically superior, and less “fit” persons should die or simply be killed like weak animals.  Soon many began to view racial struggles, and war itself, as a perfectly natural example of survival-of-the-fittest in the human race.  The horrific wars of the 20th century, employing shockingly brutal tactics, were encouraged by a belief in survival-of-the-fittest among humans.

 

 

The link between Darwinism, atheism and politics was grew strong in the late 1800s and even stronger today.  Beginning in 1887, social scientists were using the term “social Darwinism” to apply a barbaric survival-of-the-fittest theory to social situations.  Under this theory, the wealthiest or most powerful in society must be biologically superior, and less “fit” persons should die or simply be killed like weak animals.  Soon many began to view racial struggles, and war itself, as a perfectly natural example of survival-of-the-fittest in the human race.  The horrific wars of the 20th century, employing shockingly brutal tactics, were encouraged by a belief in survival-of-the-fittest among humans.

Today, there is a strong correlation between belief in evolution and belief in a controlling government.  England was the strongest nation in the world at the time of Darwin, but its embrace of forms of socialism weakened it dramatically.  The United States, where the vast majority has always rejected Darwinism, rose from being a relatively weak country at the time of Darwin to becoming by far the strongest nation today.

Today, there is a strong correlation between belief in evolution and belief in a controlling government.  England was the strongest nation in the world at the time of Darwin, but its embrace of forms of socialism weakened it dramatically.  The United States, where the vast majority has always rejected Darwinism, rose from being a relatively weak country at the time of Darwin to becoming by far the strongest nation today.

=== Social Reform===

=== Social Reform ===

Labor unions arose in the late 1800s, as John Stuart Mill suggested, in order to combat a perceived exploitation of workers.  “Collective bargaining” between workers (the “collective” side) and their opponents, the owners, became popular and continues to exist today.  It was the method of collective bargaining in the late 1900s that helped enable American baseball players to increase their salaries to astronomical levels.  Collective bargaining usually works like this:  raise our salaries or the workers will go on strike.  Several times baseball players made good on their threat, and went out on strike.  Brutal strikes by auto workers in Detroit in the 1970s for higher wages had a huge effect on the competitiveness of the auto industry there.

Labor unions arose in the late 1800s, as John Stuart Mill suggested, in order to combat a perceived exploitation of workers.  “Collective bargaining” between workers (the “collective” side) and their opponents, the owners, became popular and continues to exist today.  Collective bargaining usually works like this:  the workers demand a raise in their salaries, or the workers will go on strike.  It was collective bargaining in the late 1900s that helped enable American baseball players to increase their salaries to astronomical levels.  Several times baseball players made good on their threat, and went out on strike.  Devastating strikes by auto workers in Detroit in the 1970s, demanding higher wages, had a huge effect on the competitiveness of the auto industry, and it is going bankrupt today.

Other so-called reforms in the late 1800s included “free” public education in Western Europe, Japan and the United States; rehabilitation for prisoners; and child labor laws to control working conditions for children.  Earlier the abolition movement, which was motivated mostly by Christianity rather than by non-Christian reform movements, wiped out slavery and slave trade in much of the world by 1888.

 

Reforms, or so-called reforms, in the late 1800s included “free” public education in Western Europe, Japan and the United States; rehabilitation for prisoners; and child labor laws to control working conditions for children.   

In 1848, women suffragettes (supporters of the right to vote for women) met in Seneca Falls, New York, where they issued their own version of the Declaration of Independence called the “Declaration of Sentiments.”  Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott of the United States and the British Emmeline Pankhurst protested for suffrage.  Britain and the United States gave the right to vote to all women shortly after World War I.

In 1848, women suffragettes (supporters of the right to vote for women) met in Seneca Falls, New York, where they issued their own version of the Declaration of Independence called the “Declaration of Sentiments.”  Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott of the United States and the British Emmeline Pankhurst protested for suffrage.  Britain and the United States gave the right to vote to all women shortly after World War I.

Gradually the power of the monarchy in England was reduced to that of figurehead, which is all it is today.  Parliament increased in power, and much of that power went to the elected lower house (the House of Commons) rather than the upper, unelected House of Lords.

Gradually the power of the monarchy in England was reduced to that of figurehead, which is all it is today.  Parliament increased in power, and much of that power went to the elected lower house (the House of Commons) rather than the upper, unelected House of Lords.

Democracy came much later to other European countries.  The great potato famine of the 1840s killed many in Ireland and caused many more to immigrate to the United States.  But Ireland was ruled by Britain then, and would not obtain any substantial level of self-government until the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.  Many in Ireland and many Americans of Irish descent blame British leaders for allowing that horrific potato famine to happen, and without home rule there was little the Irish people could do to stop it.

Democracy came much later to other European countries.  The great potato famine of the 1840s killed many in Ireland and caused many more to immigrate to the United States.  But Ireland was ruled by Britain then, and Irish did not obtain any substantial level of self-government until the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.  Many in Ireland and many Americans of Irish descent blame British leaders for allowing that horrific potato famine to happen, and without home rule there was little the Irish people could do to stop it.

 

Canada achieved effective independence (as a Dominion within the British Empire)in 1867, and even then it remained within the British empire (Newfoundland remained a British territory and did not join Canada until 1949).  Australia, which was settled by prisoners from England, did not obtain self-rule for its separate colonies until the 1850s; it obtained independence as a united Commonwealth of Australia in 1901.  New Zealand also won self-rule in the 1850s and Dominion status (effective independence) in 1907.  In France its Third Republic ruled from 1875 until the German Occupation in 1940.

In France, its Third Republic ruled from 1875 until the German Occupation in 1940.

=== Technology and Science ===

=== Technology and Science ===

Capitalism unleashed a burst of creative activity in science and technology.  Beginning in the 1870s, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, motion pictures and, even though he was mostly deaf, the phonograph.  In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio, while  Nikola Tesla patented a wireless radio transmitter.<ref>However, in 1943 the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Marconi's patent and held in favor of Nikola Tesla, who claimed he first developed radio technology.[http://inventors.about.com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio.htm]</ref>  Henry Ford perfected the assembly line and manufactured the first automobiles in the early 1900s.  Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first gasoline-powered airplane in 1903.

Capitalism and freedom unleashed a burst of creative activity in science and technology.  Beginning in the 1870s, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, motion pictures and, even though he was mostly deaf, the phonograph.  In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio, while  Nikola Tesla patented a wireless radio transmitter.<ref>But in 1943 the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Marconi's patent and held in favor of Nikola Tesla, who claimed he first developed radio technology.[http://inventors.about.com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio.htm]</ref>  Henry Ford perfected the assembly line and manufactured the first automobiles in the early 1900s.  Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first gasoline-powered airplane in 1903.

Scientific and mathematical discoveries were equally marvelous.  Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), the greatest experimental scientist who ever lived, discovered how to kill bacteria in milk and in all liquids through pasteurization.  He also developed a rabies vaccine, first using it in response to a mother who begged him to save her young son, who had been just bitten by a rabid animal.  Pasteur did save her son’s life with his new vaccine.  Perhaps greatest of all was Pasteur’s discovery of the germ theory of disease, which more than anything has reduced illness and the spread of disease.  Pasteur explained that diseases are transmitted through germs.  Had people known this when the Black Death (bubonic plague) hit the world, far fewer would have died.   

Scientific and mathematical discoveries were equally marvelous.  Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), the greatest experimental scientist who ever lived, discovered how to kill bacteria in milk and in all liquids through pasteurization.  He also developed a rabies vaccine, first using it in response to a mother who begged him to save her young son, who had been just bitten by a rabid animal.  Pasteur then saved her son’s life with his new vaccine (and he later served as a watchman for Pasteur’s tomb).  Perhaps greatest of all was Pasteur’s discovery of the germ theory of disease, which more than anything has reduced illness and the spread of disease.  Pasteur explained that diseases are transmitted through germs.  Had people known this when the Black Death (bubonic plague) hit the world, far fewer would have died.   

Pasteur was a devout Christian, and did not see any conflict between science and Christianity, remarking that “science brings men nearer to God.”  Pasteur experienced many hardships throughout his life, including the death of three of his five children to childhood diseases, but these hardships only served to strengthen his faith and his determination to find cures.  Through it all Pasteur gave God the glory, stating that “the more I study nature, the more I stand amazed at the work of the Creator.”

Pasteur was a devout Christian, and did not see any conflict between science and Christianity, remarking that “science brings men nearer to God.”  Pasteur experienced many hardships throughout his life, including the death of three of his five children to childhood diseases, but these hardships only served to strengthen his faith and his determination to find cures.  Through it all Pasteur gave God the glory, stating that “the more I study nature, the more I stand amazed at the work of the Creator.”

Another devout Christian was the brilliant mathematician Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866), who was perhaps second only to the Greek Archimedes as the greatest mathematician of all time.  When Riemann was sent as a teenager to an advanced German school, he quickly became bored with his math class.  He went to the principal and requested more advanced material, whereupon the principal gave him the lengthy and most advanced math book known.  Riemann returned in a just few days declaring, “I have mastered it!”  He went on to create a new type of geometry that became useful in the next century, and he formulated the most famous unsolved hypothesis that remains in mathematics today.

Another devout Christian was the brilliant mathematician Bernhard Riemann (1826-1866), who was perhaps second only to the Greek Archimedes as the greatest mathematician of all time.  When Riemann was sent as a teenager to an advanced German school, he quickly became bored with his math class.  He went to the principal and requested more advanced material, whereupon the principal gave him the lengthy and most advanced math book known.  Riemann returned in a just few days declaring, “I have mastered it!”  He went on to create a new type of geometry that became useful in the 20th century, and he formulated the most famous unsolved hypothesis that remains in mathematics today.

Marie Curie, a brilliant female Polish scientist who moved to Paris, discovered radioactivity along with her less talented husband Pierre.  Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, put together the periodic table of elements that is still taught today.  British physician Joseph Lister applied Pasteur’s germ theory of disease and implemented an antibacterial cleaning technique for hospital tools and facilities, greatly reducing the number of infections.

Marie Curie, a brilliant female Polish scientist who moved to Paris, discovered radioactivity along with her (less-talented) husband Pierre.  Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, put together the periodic table of elements that is still taught today.  British physician Joseph Lister applied Pasteur’s germ theory of disease and implemented an antibacterial cleaning technique for hospital tools and facilities, greatly reducing the number of infections.

==Nationalism==

==Nationalism==

== Imperialism ==

== Imperialism ==

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines “imperialism” as “the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a nation especially by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas.” www.m-w.com . More simply, imperialism is one nation trying to control another nation or people.  Examples include Spanish imperialism towards Mexico and perhaps American imperialism towards the Philippines.

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines “imperialism” as “the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a nation especially by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas.”<ref>http://www.m-w.com</ref> More simply, imperialism is one nation trying to control another nation or people.  Examples include Spanish imperialism towards Mexico and perhaps American imperialism towards the Philippines.

The motivations for imperialism were obvious:  power and money.  Every ruler dreams of an empire, and imperialism meant more territory to wield power over.  Every ruler wants to be like Caesar or Napoleon.  There were financial incentives for imperialism also.  Industrial Europe needed raw materials to use in manufacturing, and also wanted customers to sell their finished products to.  Colonies gave the mother countries both the raw materials at the beginning of the industrial process and new markets for selling the products at the end of the process.

The motivations for imperialism were obvious:  power and money.  Every ruler dreams of an empire, and imperialism meant more territory to wield power over.  Every ruler wants to be like Caesar or Napoleon.  There were financial incentives for imperialism also.  Industrial Europe needed raw materials to use in manufacturing, and also wanted customers to sell their finished products to.  Colonies gave the mother countries both the raw materials at the beginning of the industrial process and new markets for selling the products at the end of the process.

But Livingstone was gone for years without any communication.  A news reporter from America, Henry Stanley, decided to travel to Africa to look for him.  Upon finding a stranger who stuck out like a sore thumb in the middle of central Africa, Stanley uttered the famous line, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?”  Indeed, Stanley had found Livingstone alive and well, and Stanley later returned to Africa to sign treaties with chiefs near the Congo River.  Belgium King Leopold II used these treaties to gain control for himself (not Belgium) over the region.

But Livingstone was gone for years without any communication.  A news reporter from America, Henry Stanley, decided to travel to Africa to look for him.  Upon finding a stranger who stuck out like a sore thumb in the middle of central Africa, Stanley uttered the famous line, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?”  Indeed, Stanley had found Livingstone alive and well, and Stanley later returned to Africa to sign treaties with chiefs near the Congo River.  Belgium King Leopold II used these treaties to gain control for himself (not Belgium) over the region.

Leopold II exploited the region for personal profit, building large rubber plantations for the natives to work on.  This destroyed the farming community and compelled the workers to toil for unreasonably low wages.  The working conditions on these plantations were very harsh.  Eventually an international outcry caused the Belgian government to take over the region, and rename it the Belgian Congo.  But this also increased competition among European powers for African colonies.

Belgium King Leopold II exploited this region of Africa for personal profit, building large rubber plantations for the natives to work on.  This destroyed the farming community and compelled the workers to toil for unreasonably low wages.  The working conditions on these plantations were very harsh.  Eventually an international outcry caused the Belgian government to take over the region, and rename it the Belgian Congo.  But this also increased competition among European powers for African colonies.

France was another European power competing for control of the Congo, which contained valuable copper and tin deposits.  Further to the south, in what is South Africa today, there were even richer gold and silver deposits.    The European powers saw much wealth in Africa in the form of minerals and wanted this for themselves.  They also wanted plantations that could produce rubber, palm oil and even cocoa (chocolate) for the European factories.

France was another European power competing for control of the Congo, which contained valuable copper and tin deposits.  Further to the south, in what is South Africa today, there were even richer gold and silver deposits.    The European powers saw much wealth in Africa in the form of minerals and wanted this for themselves.  They also wanted plantations that could produce rubber, palm oil and even cocoa (chocolate) for the European factories.

To minimize armed conflict the Europeans held the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885 to divide Africa among themselves, without regard to what the tribes of Africa wanted.  Ethnic and cultural differences within Africa were also ignored, and lines of demarcation were arbitrarily drawn for the sole benefit of the European nations.  All of Africa except for Ethiopia (which successfullly resisted Italian control in 1896) and Liberia were divided and taken by European nations.

To minimize armed conflict the Europeans held the Berlin Conference in 1884-1885 to divide Africa among themselves, without regard to what the tribes of Africa wanted.  Ethnic and cultural differences within Africa were also ignored, and lines of demarcation were arbitrarily drawn for the sole benefit of the European nations.  All of Africa except for Ethiopia (which successfully resisted Italian control in 1896) and Liberia were divided and taken by European nations.

One of Africa’s biggest and wealthiest countries today is South Africa, located on the southern tip of the continent.  It has a very advantageous location for trade routes by sea from Western Europe to India and the Far East.  As a result, there was far more immigration by Europeans to South Africa than any other region of Africa, and whites of European ancestry completely ruled South Africa until the late 1900s.  Since then, democracy has brought representative government to the African ethnic groups.  The World Cup (soccer) will be played in 2010 in South Africa, the first time it has ever been held in Africa.

One of Africa’s biggest and wealthiest countries today is South Africa, located on the southern tip of the continent.  It has a very advantageous location for trade routes by sea from Western Europe to India and the Far East.  As a result, there was far more immigration by Europeans to South Africa than any other region of Africa, and whites of European ancestry completely ruled South Africa until the late 1900s.  Since then, democracy has brought representative government to the African ethnic groups, but since then violence has plagued this country and many have left it.  The World Cup (soccer) will be played in 2010 in South Africa, the first time it has ever been held in Africa.

The Dutch (or Boers) were the first to establish a European settlement in southern Africa, at Cape Colony on the very southern tip in 1652.  This port supplied ships on the way to the Indian Ocean.  The Dutch exploited the labor of African slaves and set up farming communities that displaced the native Africans.  In the 1800s the British arrived and took over Cape Colony, and disfavored the continuation of the Dutch slavery system.  The Dutch then moved inland, further north, in what is called the Great Trek.  This created further conflict with the native Africans.

The Dutch (or Boers) were the first to establish a European settlement in southern Africa, at Cape Colony on the very southern tip in 1652.  This port supplied ships on the way to the Indian Ocean.  The Dutch exploited the labor of African slaves and set up farming communities that displaced the native Africans.  In the 1800s the British arrived and took over Cape Colony, and disfavored the continuation of the Dutch slavery system.  The Dutch then moved inland, further north, in what is called the Great Trek.  This created further conflict with the native Africans.

The Boer War broke out between the British and the Boers in 1899.  The dispute was sparked by disagreements over land, access to diamonds and gold discovered in South Africa, and whether immigrants should have political rights.  The British won this brutal war, and in 1902 established the Union of South Africa to include all the Boers republics.  This country was controlled by the British but enjoyed some self-rule.

The Boer War broke out between the British and the Boers in 1899.  The dispute was sparked by disagreements over land, access to diamonds and gold discovered in South Africa, and whether immigrants should have political rights.  The British won this brutal war, and in 1902 established the Union of South Africa to include all the Boers republics.  This country was controlled by the British but enjoyed some self-rule.

European imperialism on the African continent had both good and bad effects.  On the good side, the Europeans brought advances in technology, built hospitals, and improved the infrastructure, such as railroads, telephones, telegraphs, sanitation and other public works.  This improved trade and communications, and reduced disease.  Europeans also built schools, but used them to teach European language and culture rather than respecting local traditions.  Literacy did improve as a result, however.  On the bad side, the Europeans displaced Africans from their individual farms and shifted them into working for European businesses.  Africans lost control of their land and saw a reduction in their own food crops.  Europeans also completely disrupted African cultural groups and village life, resulting in arbitrary geographical boundaries that continue to cause war and strife to this day.

European imperialism on the African continent had both good and bad effects.  On the good side, the Europeans brought advances in technology, built hospitals, and improved the infrastructure, such as railroads, telephones, telegraphs, sanitation and other public works.  This improved trade and communications, and reduced disease.  Europeans also built schools, but used them to teach European language and culture rather than respecting local traditions.  Literacy improved, and Christianity flourished.  On the bad side, the Europeans displaced Africans from their individual farms and shifted them into working for European businesses.  Africans lost control of their land and saw a reduction in their own food crops.  Europeans also completely disrupted African cultural groups and village life, resulting in arbitrary geographical boundaries that continue to cause war and strife to this day.

=== Ottoman Empire ===

=== Ottoman Empire ===