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===Science===

===Science===

The most notable 20th century accomplishment in science was the discovery of quantum mechanics by European physicists.  This remarkable discovery of subatomic behavior ultimately produced about a dozen Nobel Prizes and is the basis for the entire computer industry today.  The leading physicists included Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Max Planck of Germany, Enrico Fermi of Italy, Niels Bohr of Denmark, Erwin Schrödinger of Austria and Paul Dirac of England.  Perhaps the most brilliant of the group was Enrico Fermi, who was a devout Christian extraordinary in both his experimental and theoretical accomplishments.   

The most notable 20th century accomplishment in science was the discovery of quantum mechanics by European physicists.  This remarkable discovery of subatomic behavior ultimately produced about a dozen Nobel Prizes and is the basis for the entire computer industry today.  The leading physicists included Werner Heisenberg, Max Born and Max Planck of Germany, Enrico Fermi of Italy, Niels Bohr of Denmark, Erwin Schrödinger of Austria and Paul Dirac of England.  Perhaps the most brilliant of the group was Enrico Fermi, who was a devout Christian extraordinary in both his experimental and theoretical accomplishments.   

Though quantum mechanics was the most productive scientific achievement of the 20th century, most people are more likely to have heard about the “theory of relativity,” which was also developed during that century.  Unlike most advances in physics, the theory of relativity was proposed based on mathematical theory rather than observation.  The theory rests on two postulates (assumptions) that are difficult to test, and then derives mathematically what the physical consequences should be.  Those two postulates are that the speed of light never changes, and that all laws of physics are the same in every (inertial) frame of reference no matter where it is or how fast it is traveling.  This theory rejects Newton’s view of gravitation and replaces it with a concept that there is a continuum of space and time, and that large masses (like the sun) bend space in a manner similar to how a finger can depress an area of a balloon.  From this proposed bending of space the expression arose that “space is curved.”<ref>Later experiments demonstrated that space is not curved overall, and that it is actually flat.</ref>

Though quantum mechanics was the most productive scientific achievement of the 20th century, most people are more likely to have heard about the “theory of relativity,” which was also developed during that century.  Unlike most advances in physics, the theory of relativity was proposed based on mathematical theory rather than observation.  The theory rests on two postulates (assumptions) that are difficult to test, and then derives mathematically what the physical consequences should be.  Those two postulates are that the speed of light never changes, and that all laws of physics are the same in every (inertial) frame of reference no matter where it is or how fast it is traveling.  This theory rejects Newton’s view of gravitation and replaces it with a concept that there is a continuum of space and time, and that large masses (like the sun) bend space in a manner similar to how a finger can depress an area of a balloon.  From this proposed bending of space the expression arose that “space is curved.”<ref>Later experiments demonstrated that space is not curved overall, and that it is actually flat.</ref>

Nothing useful has even been built based on the theory of relativity.  <> Albert Einstein (1879-1955), who never accepted quantum mechanics, proposed a theory of general relativity in 1915, which built on work he had done in 1905.  He won a well-deserved Nobel Prize, but not for his theory of relativity.  Einstein’s work had nothing to do with the development of the atom bomb, contrary to popular opinion.  Only one Nobel Prize (in 1993) has ever been given that relates to relativity, and the validity of that particular award is questionable.  Many things predicted by the theory of relativity, such as gravitons, have never been found despite much searching for them.  Many observed phenomenon, such as the bending of light passing near the sun or the advance of the perihelion in the orbit of Mercury, can be also predicted by Newton’s theory.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) and others promoted the theory of relativity.  Contrary to public perception, the theory of relativity had nothing to do with the development of the atom bomb or any other technology.  Only one Nobel Prize (in 1993) has ever been given that relates to relativity, and the validity of that particular award is questionable.  Many things predicted by the theory of relativity, such as gravitons, have never been found despite expensive government projects (like “LIGO”<ref>http://www.ligo.caltech.edu/</ref>) that search for them.  Many observed phenomenon attributed to the theory of relativity, such as the bending of light passing near the sun or the advance of the perihelion in the orbit of Mercury, can be also predicted by Newton’s theory.  The theory of relativity conflicts with quantum mechanics, and Einstein himself never accepted quantum mechanics.

British Historian Paul Johnson declares the turning point in 20th century to have been when fellow Brit Sir Arthur Eddington, the top English astronomer, ventured out on a boat off Africa in 1919 to observe the bending of starlight around the sun during a total eclipse.  The theory of relativity predicts twice the bending of light around massive objects compared to Newton’s theory, and an eclipse is required to darken the sun so that the starlight may be seen in proximity to the sun.  Eddington liked publicity and probably dreamed of winning a Nobel Prize, and upon his return to England declared that his observations proven the theory of relativity.  That was good enough for reporters and historians, but the Nobel committee was not impressed and declined to give him an award.  Recent analysis of Eddington’s work revealed that he was biased in selecting his data, and that overall his data was inconclusive about the theory of relativity.   

British Historian Paul Johnson declares the turning point in 20th century to have been when fellow Brit Sir Arthur Eddington, the top English astronomer, ventured out on a boat off Africa in 1919 to try to prove the theory of relativity.  The theory of relativity predicts twice the bending of light around massive objects compared to Newton’s theory, and an eclipse is required to darken the sun so that the starlight may be seen in proximity to the sun.  Eddington liked publicity and probably dreamed of winning a Nobel Prize, and upon his return to England declared that his observations proven the theory of relativity by observing the bending of starlight around the sun during a total eclipse.  That was good enough for reporters and historians, but the Nobel committee was not impressed and declined to give him an award.  Recent analysis of Eddington’s work revealed that he was biased in selecting his data, and that overall his data was inconclusive about the theory of relativity.   

Eddington next promoted the theory of relativity to the English-speaking world in his Mathematical Theory of Relativity (1923).  As the title suggests, this theory was more a mathematical vision of how the universe should be, rather than what it actually was.  When a reporter asked Eddington whether only three people even understood the theory, Eddington supposedly retorted, “Who’s the third?”  But Eddington did not fare well after that.  He strongly opposed a theory about massive stars known as white dwarfs put forth by Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, but Eddington was proven wrong and Chandrasekhar later won a Nobel Prize for his work.  Eddington finally lost all credibility when he first insisted that a physical constant (the fine structure constant) measured to be close to 1/136 must precisely equal 1/136 to make the math easier, but when later measurements suggested a value closer to 1/137 Eddington insisted that it must precisely equal to 1/137 instead.  He was wrong both times.  When World War II came to England, Eddington was a conscious objector.

Eddington then promoted the theory of relativity to the public in his Mathematical Theory of Relativity (1923).  As the title suggests, this theory was more a mathematical vision of how the universe should be, rather than what it actually was.  When a reporter asked Eddington whether only three people even understood the theory, Eddington comically replied, “Who’s the third?”  Later Eddington opposed a theory about massive stars known as white dwarfs put forth by Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, but Eddington was proven wrong and Chandrasekhar later won a Nobel Prize for his work.  Eddington finally lost all credibility when he first insisted that a physical constant (the fine structure constant) measured to be close to 1/136 must precisely equal 1/136 to make the math easier, but when later measurements suggested a value closer to 1/137 Eddington insisted that it must precisely equal to 1/137 instead.  He was wrong both times.  When World War II threatened the future of England, Eddington was a conscious objector and refused to participate.

   

   

Just as “social Darwinism” arose from Darwinism, many seized upon the theory of relativity to apply it in a vague way to morality and social issues.  “All things are relative” became popular as atheists and others used relativity to attack Christian values.  There remains enormous political support for the theory of relativity that has nothing to do with physics, and Congress continues to spend billions of dollars unsuccessfully searching for particles predicted by the theory of relativity.

Just as “social Darwinism” arose from Darwinism, many seized upon the theory of relativity to apply it in a vague way to morality and social issues.  “All things are relative” became popular as atheists and others used relativity to attack Christian values.  As a law student, Barack Obama was given credit by a liberal professor in an article claiming that the theory of relativity could support a right to abortion.  There remains enormous political support for the theory of relativity that has nothing to do with physics, and Congress continues to spend billions of dollars unsuccessfully searching for particles predicted by the theory of relativity.

 

 

Another scientific controversy in the early 20th century concerned whether there was an origin or initial moment for the universe.  Increasingly some physicists insisted in the 1920s was that the universe must have always existed in a “steady state,” and that creation was myth.  But in 1927 a Belgian Catholic priest, Georges-Henri Lemaître, proposed that the universe must have begun in an initial massive “explosion” like a creation.  He was ridiculed for years, with one prominent physicist making fun of his hypothesis by calling it the “Big Bang.”  But in 1929, Edwin Hubble, another devout Christian, discovered evidence supporting the “Big Bang” and now most physicists accept this theory (and the name, even though it was first used to make fun of the theory).  Research in the 1960s in central New Jersey discovered further support for the Big Bang, for which the Bell Labs scientists received the Nobel Prize.

Another scientific controversy in the early 20th century concerned whether there was an origin or initial moment for the universe.  Increasingly some physicists insisted in the 1920s was that the universe must have always existed in a “steady state,” and that creation was myth.  But in 1927 a Belgian Catholic priest, Georges-Henri Lemaître, proposed that the universe must have begun in an initial massive “explosion” like a creation.  He was ridiculed for years, with one prominent physicist making fun of his hypothesis by calling it the “Big Bang.”  But in 1929, Edwin Hubble, another devout Christian, discovered evidence supporting the “Big Bang” and now nearly all physicists accept this theory.  Research in the 1960s in central New Jersey discovered further support for the Big Bang, for which the Bell Labs scientists received the Nobel Prize.

'''Other 20th Century Theories'''

Other thinkers in the early 1900s included Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).  He was the atheistic father of psychoanalysis, emphasizing the supposed importance of one’s unconscious mind and symbolic dreams.  He was a professor in Vienna, Austria.  In 1938 he fled the Nazis by traveling to England, where he was welcomed and made popular.  Freud proposed that the human psyche consists of three parts -- ego, super-ego, and id -- and that defense mechanisms are an attempt by the mind to resolve conflicts between the super-ego and the id.  A “Freudian slip” is something mistakenly spoken that supposedly reflects a view of one’s subconscious.  Critics of Freud point out that he fabricated some of his data in order to make some of his claims.  Late in life, Freud asked his doctor to kill him, which his doctor did.

Other thinkers in the early 1900s included Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).  He was the atheistic father of psychoanalysis, emphasizing the supposed importance of one’s unconscious mind and symbolic dreams.  He was a professor in Vienna, Austria.  In 1938 he fled the Nazis by traveling to England, where he was welcomed and became popular due to his atheism.  Freud proposed that the human psyche consists of three parts -- ego, super-ego, and id -- and that defense mechanisms are an attempt by the mind to resolve conflicts between the super-ego and the id.  A “Freudian slip” is something mistakenly spoken that supposedly reflects a view of one’s subconscious.  Critics of Freud point out that he fabricated some of his data in order to make some of his claims.  Late in life, Freud asked his doctor to kill him, which his doctor did.

===Technology===

===Technology===

===Literature and Philosophy===

===Literature and Philosophy===

After World War I several novels deplored the apparent meaninglessness of that war, and war in general.  In All Quiet on the Western Front (1929), World War I veteran Erich Maria Remarque describes the war in an unflattering way from the perspective of German soldiers.  American Ernest Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms (1929) was also critical of war.

After World War I several novels deplored the apparent meaninglessness of that war, and war in general.  In ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' (1929), World War I veteran Erich Maria Remarque describes the war in an unflattering way from the perspective of German soldiers.  American Ernest Hemingway’s ''A Farewell to Arms'' (1929) was also critical of war.

Author and attorney Franz Kafka penned several classic stories illustrating how humans are alienated from a hostile, unintelligible and indifferent modern world.  Several of his works became classics after Kafka died, including The Trial (1925) and The Castle (1926).  In The Trial, an innocent man finds himself a defendant in a trial that he cannot understand, and he is sentenced to death for a crime he didn’t do.  Kafka’s most famous short story was The Metamorphosis (1915), in which someone awakens to realize that he has been transformed into a massive cockroach that has been fatally injured.  Throughout Kafka’s works he expressed and sympathized with the feeling of being an outsider, of being someone who is not in the “in group.”  Kafka himself lacked religion and suffered from bouts of insanity as he grew older.

Author and attorney Franz Kafka penned several classic stories illustrating how humans are alienated from a hostile, unintelligible and indifferent modern world.  Several of his works became classics after Kafka died, including ''The Trial'' (1925) and ''The Castle'' (1926).  In ''The Trial'', an innocent man finds himself a defendant in a trial that he cannot understand, and he is sentenced to death for a crime he didn’t do.  Kafka’s most famous short story was ''The Metamorphosis'' (1915), in which someone awakens to realize that he has been transformed into a massive cockroach that has been fatally injured.  Throughout Kafka’s works he expressed and sympathized with the feeling of being an outsider, of being someone who is not in the “in group.”  Kafka himself lacked religion and suffered from bouts of insanity as he grew older.

Philosophers increasingly abandoned religion.  Frenchman Jean Paul Sartre and the German Karl Jaspers advanced a new philosophy called “existentialism”, which taught that life has no meaning at all.  Existentialism was a rebellion against all philosophy, seeking freedom for each person to form whatever value system he likes.  An atheist, Sartre’s most famous work was L'âge de raison (The Age of Reason) (1945).  Towards the end of his life he expressed sympathy with the terrorists who kidnapped and killed Israelis during the 1972 Olympics, asserting that it was “perfectly scandalous” how the French press criticized the terrorism.   

Philosophers increasingly abandoned religion.  Frenchman Jean Paul Sartre and the German Karl Jaspers advanced a new philosophy called “existentialism”, which taught that life has no meaning at all and that neither God not morality exist.  Existentialism was a rebellion against all philosophy, seeking freedom for each person to form whatever value system he likes. Rather than "I think therefore I am," and existentialist might say, "I exist therefore I think." An atheist, Sartre’s most famous work was ''L'âge de raison'' (''The Age of Reason'') (1945).  Towards the end of his life he expressed sympathy with the terrorists who kidnapped and killed Israelis during the 1972 Olympics, asserting that it was “perfectly scandalous” how the French press criticized the terrorism.   

Prior work in the 1800s by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was the basis for the existentialism movement in the 1900s.  Nietzsche is famous for his statement that “God is dead.”  Nietzsche criticized Western democracy, preferring instead rule by elitist groups who could become almost superhuman through effort and courage.  Nietzsche himself went insane later in life, but many Germans promoted his ideas after World War I as Germans struggled to find self-esteem.

Prior work in the 1800s by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was the basis for the existentialism movement in the 1900s.  Nietzsche is famous for his statement that “God is dead.”  Nietzsche criticized Western democracy, preferring instead rule by elitist groups who could become almost superhuman through effort and courage.  Nietzsche himself went insane later in life, but many Germans promoted his ideas after World War I as Germans struggled to find self-esteem.

Americans made one of its rare artistic contributions to the world in the form of jazz, a new style of music developed in New Orleans in the 1920s.  It used irregular tempo and rhythms and combined African American music with European traditions.  New dance styles also became popular, including the Charleston dance that featured much movement.

Americans made one of its rare artistic contributions to the world in the form of jazz, a new style of music developed in New Orleans in the 1920s.  It used irregular tempo and rhythms and combined African American music with European traditions.  New dance styles also became popular, including the Charleston dance that featured much movement.

In The Rite of Spring (1913), Russian-born composer Igor Stravinsky broke with traditional views of music by having different musical instruments play in different keys simultaneously.

In ''The Rite of Spring'' (1913), Russian-born composer Igor Stravinsky broke with traditional views of music by having different musical instruments play in different keys simultaneously.

Architect Frank Lloyd Wright became world-renowned for his building design, which emphasized functionalism.  Architect Walter Gropius of Germany founded the Bauhaus school to expand on Wright’s work.  Both felt that new buildings should feature designs that encouraged movement and facilitated the intended use.  Wright’s most famous designs are the Guggenheim Museum in upper Manhattan and the Falling Water house in rural Pennsylvania.

Architect Frank Lloyd Wright became world-renowned for his building design, which emphasized functionalism.  Architect Walter Gropius of Germany founded the Bauhaus school to expand on Wright’s work.  Both felt that new buildings should feature designs that encouraged movement and facilitated the intended use.  Wright’s most famous designs are the Guggenheim Museum in upper Manhattan and the Falling Water house in rural Pennsylvania.