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In the United States there were some American citizens of Japanese descent, particularly in California.  After the attack on Pearl Harbor, fear and distrust about Japanese Americans arose.  Rumors of surprise Japanese attacks on the west coast of the United States became common, and some American officials feared spying by Japanese Americans.  The loyalty of American citizens of Japanese descent was doubted.

In the United States there were some American citizens of Japanese descent, particularly in California.  After the attack on Pearl Harbor, fear and distrust about Japanese Americans arose.  Rumors of surprise Japanese attacks on the west coast of the United States became common, and some American officials feared spying by Japanese Americans.  The loyalty of American citizens of Japanese descent was doubted.

President Roosevelt, with the support of California Governor [[Earl Warren]] (who was later appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in the 1950s), ordered that people of Japanese descent be forced to live in internment camps where they could be watched 24 hours a day.  These included American citizens who had been born in the United States (the “Nisei”).  Their property was confiscated also.  Many of the internment camps were located away from the coasts in unfamiliar territories, such as near Indian reservations.  Overall, 110,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly moved to internment camps during the war.

President Roosevelt, with the support of California Governor [[Earl Warren]] (who was later appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in the 1950s), ordered that Americans of Japanese descent be forced to live in internment camps where they could be watched 24 hours a day.  These included American citizens who had been born in the United States (the “Nisei”).  Their property was confiscated also.  Many of the internment camps were located away from the coasts in unfamiliar territories, such as near Indian reservations.  Overall, 110,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly moved to internment camps during the war.

This policy constituted racial discrimination and some of the victims sued to stop it.  But the U.S. Supreme Court upheld this racial discrimination in ''Korematsu v. United States'' (1944).  Three dissented from this decision, which is considered one of the Court’s most embarrassing rulings.  In 1948 Congress enacted the Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act to compensate some of the victims for losing their homes and businesses.  In 1980, Congress held hearings to review some of the personal hardships, and issued a report in 1983 condemning President Roosevelt’s removal order and the Supreme Court decision.  But many Americans see nothing wrong with taking such measures in a time of crisis and war.

This policy constituted racial discrimination and some of the victims sued to stop it.  But the U.S. Supreme Court upheld this racial discrimination in ''Korematsu v. United States'' (1944).  Three dissented from this decision, which is considered one of the Court’s most embarrassing rulings.  In 1948 Congress enacted the Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act to compensate some of the victims for losing their homes and businesses.  In 1980, Congress held hearings to review some of the personal hardships, and issued a report in 1983 condemning President Roosevelt’s removal order and the Supreme Court decision.  But many Americans see nothing wrong with taking such measures in a time of crisis and war.

Szilard immigrated to the United States and was determined to persuade President Roosevelt to fund the building of an atomic bomb. Szilard felt that a letter to the President by Albert Einstein would help.  Einstein, a pacifist, was known better than most physicists. Einstein agreed to sign a letter written by Szilard, which was then taken to President Roosevelt in early August 1939.  The letter explained the feasibility and importance of developing an atomic bomb.  

Szilard immigrated to the United States and was determined to persuade President Roosevelt to fund the building of an atomic bomb. Szilard felt that a letter to the President by Albert Einstein would help.  Einstein, a pacifist, was known better than most physicists. Einstein agreed to sign a letter written by Szilard, which was then taken to President Roosevelt in early August 1939.  The letter explained the feasibility and importance of developing an atomic bomb.  

But President Roosevelt did little based on this letter, and instead only allocated a tiny $6,000 for such a project. Over two years passed, and no progress was made. It was not until Dec. 6, 1941, the day before Pearl Harbor, that an all-out effort to build an atomic bomb began under the direction of General Leslie Groves.  Building on work performed by the brilliant physicist Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago, a massive and top-secret team of scientists assembled in Los Alamos, New Mexico, to build an atomic bomb.  Managers of this project included J. Robert Oppenheimer, who later accused of being a communist sympathizer.

But President Roosevelt did little based on this letter, and instead allocated only a tiny $6,000 for such a project. Over two years passed, and no progress was made. It was not until Dec. 6, 1941, the day before Pearl Harbor, that an all-out effort to build an atomic bomb began under the direction of General Leslie Groves.  Building on work performed by the brilliant physicist Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago, a massive and top-secret team of scientists assembled in Los Alamos, New Mexico, to build an atomic bomb.  Managers of this project included J. Robert Oppenheimer, who later accused of being a communist sympathizer.

The scientists eventually succeeded, and rushed a few prototype bombs to the [[military]] for potential use near the end of the war in 1945.  By then, Americans had won many victories against the Japanese in the Pacific, including capturing the island of Leyte in the Philippines in October 1944, and then defeating the Japanese at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.  The U.S. Marines defeated the Japanese at Iwo Jima, resulting in a famous picture of several Marines raising the American flag.  But the American capture of Okinawa in June 1945 proved to be one of the bloodiest land battles of the war with Japan.  It became clear that the Japanese would not agree to President Roosevelt’s demand for unconditional surrender, and that conquering Japan itself would cost the lives of perhaps a million American soldiers. (The Allied plan for possibly invading Japan was called ''Operation Downfall'', and it was canceled once the atomic bomb attacks were successful.) The Japanese were ready to fight to the death for their country.  Increasingly, Japanese fighter pilots became kamikazes by flying their planes in suicide missions directly into American ships.

The scientists eventually succeeded, and rushed a few prototype bombs to the [[military]] for potential use near the end of the war in 1945.  By then, Americans had won many victories against the Japanese in the Pacific, including capturing the island of Leyte in the Philippines in October 1944, and then defeating the Japanese at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.  The U.S. Marines defeated the Japanese at Iwo Jima, resulting in a famous picture of several Marines raising the American flag.  But the American capture of Okinawa in June 1945 proved to be one of the bloodiest land battles of the war with Japan.  It became clear that the Japanese would not agree to President Roosevelt’s demand for unconditional surrender, and that conquering Japan itself would cost the lives of perhaps a million American soldiers. (The Allied plan for possibly invading Japan was called ''Operation Downfall'', and it was canceled once the atomic bomb attacks were successful.) The Japanese were ready to fight to the death for their country.  Increasingly, Japanese fighter pilots became kamikazes by flying their planes in suicide missions directly into American ships.

President Roosevelt, who knew he was dying but kept it from the American people in the election in November 1944, passed away on April 12, 1945.  He thus served less than three months of his new term.  His vice president, Harry S Truman, became president despite not having been elected.  Truman was a decent man from Missouri but was beyond his depth as the leader of the nation.  He was not even aware that the Manhattan Project existed until late 1944.  Joseph Stalin knew more about the progress of the Manhattan Project, through spies, than Truman did.  Truman’s personality was to act impulsively, and he spent much of his spare time playing simple card games with friends.

President Roosevelt, who knew he was dying but kept it from the American people in the election in November 1944, passed away on April 12, 1945.  He thereby served less than three months of his new term.  His vice president, Harry S Truman, became president despite not having been elected.  Truman was a decent man from Missouri but was beyond his depth as the leader of the nation.  He was not even aware that the Manhattan Project existed until late 1944.  Joseph Stalin knew more about the progress of the Manhattan Project, through spies, than Truman did.  Truman’s personality was to act impulsively, and he spent much of his spare time playing simple card games with friends.

He had never met Winston Churchill or other world leaders, and soon he began to meet with them as Americans were looking for ways to wrap up the war.  In the summer of 1945 he received word from the Manhattan Project that the scientists had successfully built a few atomic bombs.  It would be up to President Truman to decide if and how to use the atomic bomb.

He had never met Winston Churchill or other world leaders, and soon he began to meet with them as Americans were looking for ways to wrap up the war.  In the summer of 1945 he received word from the Manhattan Project that the scientists had successfully built a few atomic bombs.  It would be up to President Truman to decide if and how to use the atomic bomb.