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History has two meanings. On the one hand it is the sum of events in the human past. On the other it is academic discipline of researching, written, oral, or archaeological sources, as well as of communicating the results of such research and reconstructing the findings into a coherent narrative or meaningful analysis.  This article deals with academic history, or "'''historiography'''".

History has two meanings. On the one hand it is the sum of events in the human past. On the other it is academic discipline of researching, written, oral, or archaeological sources, as well as of communicating the results of such research and reconstructing the findings into a coherent narrative or meaningful analysis.  This article deals with academic history, or "'''historiography'''".

History is conventionally divided chronologically into ancient, medieval and modern periods, and into specific geographical areas (especially those controlled by a nation state or empire). Academic studies of history attempt to document past events, as well as interpret or explain them according to various methodologies.  '''Prehistory''' deals with mankind before written records, and is part of [[Archaeology]], with little overlap with history.  Popular history (or "heritage") is related to folklore, antiques, and old monumets; more generally it concerns memories of the past constructed by a group.  Scholarly historians in recent years have been studying how popular history and heritage are constructed and how they affect people. Sacred history concerns divinely inspired events and is handled by religion scholars.  

History is conventionally divided chronologically into ancient, medieval and modern periods, and into specific geographical areas (especially those controlled by a nation state or empire). Academic studies of history attempt to document past events, as well as interpret or explain them according to various methodologies.  '''Prehistory''' deals with mankind before written records, and is part of [[Archaeology]], with little overlap with history.  Popular history (or "heritage") is related to folklore, antiques, and old monuments; more generally it concerns memories of the past constructed by a group.  Scholarly historians in recent years have been studying how popular history and heritage are constructed and how they affect people. Sacred history concerns divinely inspired events and is handled by religion scholars.  

This article discusses '''historiography''', the writing of history by scholars and specialists.  For lists of historians, see [[Historians]] .

This article discusses '''historiography''', the writing of history by scholars and specialists.  For lists of historians, see [[Historians]] .

British historian E. H. Carr (1892-1982) has advised that history is not a single, well-defined narrative or bundle of facts that can be memorized, but a terrain of contestation between competing and evolving interpretations whose influence is as much shaped by time and place as by any given set of facts.<ref> E.H. Carr, ''What is History?'' (1961)  

British historian E. H. Carr (1892-1982) has advised that history is not a single, well-defined narrative or bundle of facts that can be memorized, but a terrain of contestation between competing and evolving interpretations whose influence is as much shaped by time and place as by any given set of facts.<ref> E.H. Carr, ''What is History?'' (1961)  

==Divine intervention==

==Divine intervention==

Chinese, Moslem, Indian and Christian traditions of learning emphasize that God determined history and humans played only supporting roles.

Chinese, Muslim, Indian and Christian traditions of learning emphasize that God determined history and humans played only supporting roles.

Thus in China Ssu-ma Cheng-chen c. 100 BC presented a model of Chinese history that assumed Heaven choses virtuous hereditary rulers, then arranges events so that they were overthrown when a ruling dynasty became corrupt. Each new dynasty begins virtuous and strong, but then decays, provoking the transfer of Heaven's mandate to a new ruler. The test of virtue in a new dynasty is success in being obeyed by China and neighboring barbarians. After 2000 years Ssu-ma Chen's model still dominates scholarship, even among westerners who do not hold the Taoist belief that the ruler's personal virtue assures divine support.<ref> S. Y. Teng, "Chinese Historiography in the Last Fifty Years," ''The Far Eastern Quarterly,'' Vol. 8, No. 2 (Feb., 1949), pp. 131-156 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0363-6917(194902)8%3A2%3C131%3ACHITLF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]</ref>

Thus in China Ssu-ma Cheng-chen c. 100 BC presented a model of Chinese history that assumed Heaven choses virtuous hereditary rulers, then arranges events so that they were overthrown when a ruling dynasty became corrupt. Each new dynasty begins virtuous and strong, but then decays, provoking the transfer of Heaven's mandate to a new ruler. The test of virtue in a new dynasty is success in being obeyed by China and neighboring barbarians. After 2000 years Ssu-ma Chen's model still dominates scholarship, even among westerners who do not hold the Taoist belief that the ruler's personal virtue assures divine support.<ref> S. Y. Teng, "Chinese Historiography in the Last Fifty Years," ''The Far Eastern Quarterly,'' Vol. 8, No. 2 (Feb., 1949), pp. 131-156 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0363-6917(194902)8%3A2%3C131%3ACHITLF%3E2.0.CO%3B2-W in JSTOR]</ref>

   

   

While the Chinese, Moslem, and Indian traditions continued their theocentric historiography, there was a radical challenge to it in Christian Europe during the [[Renaissance]]. Historians such as [[Machiavelli]] downplayed divine intervention and stressed that men made their own history, and that rulers should study history in order to shape the future. European scholars began a more systematic study of history. One Arab scholar, [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) broke with traditionalism and offered a strikingly modern model of historical change in ''Muqaddimah,'' a brilliant exposition of the methodology of scientific history. Ibn Khaldun focused on the reasons for the rise and fall of civilization, arguing that the causes of change are to be sought in the economic and social structure of society. His work was largely ignored in the Muslim world. Otherwise the Muslim, Chinese and Indian intellectuals held fast to a religious traditionalism, leaving them unprepared to advise national leaders on how to confront European imperialism as it reached into Asia after 1500.   

While the Chinese, Muslim, and Indian traditions continued their theocentric historiography, there was a radical challenge to it in Christian Europe during the [[Renaissance]]. Historians such as [[Machiavelli]] downplayed divine intervention and stressed that men made their own history, and that rulers should study history in order to shape the future. European scholars began a more systematic study of history. One Arab scholar, [[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) broke with traditionalism and offered a strikingly modern model of historical change in ''Muqaddimah,'' a brilliant exposition of the methodology of scientific history. Ibn Khaldun focused on the reasons for the rise and fall of civilization, arguing that the causes of change are to be sought in the economic and social structure of society. His work was largely ignored in the Muslim world. Otherwise the Muslim, Chinese and Indian intellectuals held fast to a religious traditionalism, leaving them unprepared to advise national leaders on how to confront European imperialism as it reached into Asia after 1500.   

===Christian history===

===Christian history===

*** The American Italian Historical Association was founded in 1966 and has 400 members; it does not publish a journal <ref> See [http://www.aihaweb.org/ American Italian Historical Association ]</ref>

*** The American Italian Historical Association was founded in 1966 and has 400 members; it does not publish a journal <ref> See [http://www.aihaweb.org/ American Italian Historical Association ]</ref>

***The American Jewish Historical Society is the oldest ethnic society, founded in 1892; it has 3,300 members and publishes ''American Jewish History''<ref> See [http://www.ajhs.org American Jewish Historical Society] and [http://www.ajhs.org/academic/history.cfm journal]</ref>

***The American Jewish Historical Society is the oldest ethnic society, founded in 1892; it has 3,300 members and publishes ''American Jewish History''<ref> See [http://www.ajhs.org American Jewish Historical Society] and [http://www.ajhs.org/academic/history.cfm journal]</ref>

**[[African American history]] studies blacks in the United States. The Association for the Study of African American Life and History was founded by Carter G, Woodson in 1915 and has 2500 members and publishes the ''Journal of African American History;'' since 1926 it has sponsored Black History Month every Febriary.<ref> See [http://www.asalh.org/ ASALH]</ref>

**[[African American history]] studies blacks in the United States. The Association for the Study of African American Life and History was founded by Carter G, Woodson in 1915 and has 2500 members and publishes the ''Journal of African American History;'' since 1926 it has sponsored Black History Month every February.<ref> See [http://www.asalh.org/ ASALH]</ref>

*[[Labor history]], deals with labor unions and the social history of workers. See for example [[Labor Unions, U.S., History]]  The Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History was established: 1971 and has a membership of 1000.  It publishes ''International Labor and Working-Class History''.<ref> See [http://www.newschool.edu/gf/history/ilwch/ Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History ]</ref>

*[[Labor history]], deals with labor unions and the social history of workers. See for example [[Labor Unions, U.S., History]]  The Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History was established: 1971 and has a membership of 1000.  It publishes ''International Labor and Working-Class History''.<ref> See [http://www.newschool.edu/gf/history/ilwch/ Study Group on International Labor and Working-Class History ]</ref>

** see Bryan D. Palmer and Todd Mccallum, "Working-Class History" [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0008710 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]   

** see Bryan D. Palmer and Todd McCallum, "Working-Class History" [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0008710 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]   

====Women, gender, family====

====Women, gender, family====

*[[Women's history]] exploded into prominence in the 1970s,<ref> See [http://www.mtsu.edu/~kmiddlet/history/women.html American Women's History: A Research Guide]</ref> and is now well represeneted in every geographical topic; increasingly it includes gender history.<ref>see [http://www.amazon.com/Companion-Gender-History-Blackwell-Companions/dp/1405149604/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203919125&sr=8-1  Teresa A. Meade and Merry Wiesner-Hanks, eds. ''A Companion to Gender History'' (2006)]</ref>  

*[[Women's history]] exploded into prominence in the 1970s,<ref> See [http://www.mtsu.edu/~kmiddlet/history/women.html American Women's History: A Research Guide]</ref> and is now well represented in every geographical topic; increasingly it includes gender history.<ref>see [http://www.amazon.com/Companion-Gender-History-Blackwell-Companions/dp/1405149604/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203919125&sr=8-1  Teresa A. Meade and Merry Wiesner-Hanks, eds. ''A Companion to Gender History'' (2006)]</ref>  

**[[Family history]] emerged as a separate field in the 1970s.<ref> see [http://jfh.sagepub.com/ ''Journal of Family History'', quarterly since 1976]</ref>

**[[Family history]] emerged as a separate field in the 1970s.<ref> see [http://jfh.sagepub.com/ ''Journal of Family History'', quarterly since 1976]</ref>

***see Neil Sutherland, "Childhood, History of," [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001579 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]

***see Neil Sutherland, "Childhood, History of," [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001579 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]

[[Economic History]]: Covers topics from agriculture, technology and business organization, and includes population studies and the reconstruction of economic indicators (like GDP).  One important new branch is [[Business history]]. Since the 1970s much of economic history, as well as [[History of economic thought]], has migrated from history departments and journals to economics - while [[Marxism|Marxist]] interpretations of history are most often found in literature departments, not history departments.  

[[Economic History]]: Covers topics from agriculture, technology and business organization, and includes population studies and the reconstruction of economic indicators (like GDP).  One important new branch is [[Business history]]. Since the 1970s much of economic history, as well as [[History of economic thought]], has migrated from history departments and journals to economics - while [[Marxism|Marxist]] interpretations of history are most often found in literature departments, not history departments.  

** See Ian M. Drummond, "Economic History" [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0002512 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]

** See Ian M. Drummond, "Economic History" [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0002512 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]

** See Duncan Mcdowall. "Business History,"  [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0001133 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]

** See Duncan McDowall. "Business History,"  [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Params=A1ARTA0001133 ''Canadian Encyclopedia'' (2008)]

====Rural and Agricultural history====

====Rural and Agricultural history====

The "Agricultural History Society" was established in 1919 and has 1200 members who focus on the history of rural life, especially in the U.S.<ref> See [http://www.aghistorysociety.org/ Agricultural History Society'']</ref> Since 1926 its journal ''Agricultural History'' has been the journal of record which publishes articles on all aspects of the history of agriculture and rural life with no geographical or temporal limits.<ref> See [http://www.aghistorysociety.org/journal/index.html ''Agricultural History'']</ref>  

The "Agricultural History Society" was established in 1919 and has 1200 members who focus on the history of rural life, especially in the U.S.<ref> See [http://www.aghistorysociety.org/ Agricultural History Society'']</ref> Since 1926 its journal ''Agricultural History'' has been the journal of record which publishes articles on all aspects of the history of agriculture and rural life with no geographical or temporal limits.<ref> See [http://www.aghistorysociety.org/journal/index.html ''Agricultural History'']</ref>  

The use of history to study the rise and fall of nation-states or civilizations, in the style of [[Edward Gibbon]] (1737-1794), Oswald Spengler (1880-1936), Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), or [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] (1889-1975), has fallen out of fashion, as most no longer have faith that such a project is possible.  However William H. McNeill (1917- ), a Toynbee student, has tried his hand at it, and [[World History]] is in fashion.

The use of history to study the rise and fall of nation-states or civilizations, in the style of [[Edward Gibbon]] (1737-1794), Oswald Spengler (1880-1936), Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), or [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] (1889-1975), has fallen out of fashion, as most no longer have faith that such a project is possible.  However William H. McNeill (1917- ), a Toynbee student, has tried his hand at it, and [[World History]] is in fashion.

Since the 1970s the [[postmodern]] sensibility has prevailed in historiograpphy, forcing most (but not all) historians away from "big" questions and grand themes, and focusing them on small topics that are approached from many directions, often with ambiguous results.

Since the 1970s the [[postmodern]] sensibility has prevailed in historiography, forcing most (but not all) historians away from "big" questions and grand themes, and focusing them on small topics that are approached from many directions, often with ambiguous results.

===Popular aphorisms===

===Popular aphorisms===

Spanish philosopher [[George Santayana]] commented, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."  Many historians have echoed the line. The German philosopher of history [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] remarked that "What history and experience teach us is this: that people and government never have learned anything from history or acted on principles deduced from it."  Hegel was paraphrased by [[Winston Churchill]], who said "The one thing we have learned from history is that we don't learn from history." Ortega Y Gasset (1883-1955), Spanish philosopher said, "We have need of history in its entirety, not to fall back into it, but to escape from it." The aphorisms are entertaining and are often given out to popular audiences, but scholars pay no attention to them.

Spanish philosopher [[George Santayana]] commented, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."  Many historians have echoed the line. The German philosopher of history [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] remarked that "What history and experience teach us is this: that people and government never have learned anything from history or acted on principles deduced from it."  Hegel was paraphrased by [[Winston Churchill]], who said "The one thing we have learned from history is that we don't learn from history." Ortega Y Gasset (1883-1955), Spanish philosopher said, "We have need of history in its entirety, not to fall back into it, but to escape from it." The aphorisms are entertaining and are often given out to popular audiences, but scholars pay no attention to them.