Changes

But the news is not all good.  America triumphed in many ways in the world, but she has many enemies outside of her borders, and quite a few within.  In this second-to-last lecture, ask yourself in which direction you think the world is headed:  towards a better place, or towards a worse one?

But the news is not all good.  America triumphed in many ways in the world, but she has many enemies outside of her borders, and quite a few within.  In this second-to-last lecture, ask yourself in which direction you think the world is headed:  towards a better place, or towards a worse one?

   

   

== II. Regional Conflicts during the Cold War ==

== Regional Conflicts during the Cold War ==

=== A. Vietnam ===

=== Vietnam ===

Americans feared a “domino effect” of communism for good reason.  Imagine a row of dominoes, what happens when one falls into another, and then into another, and so on.  Each falling domino can knock over the one next to it.  Americans starting with President Dwight Eisenhower feared that effect when communism took over a nation:  all nearby nations could be the next to fall to that same communism.

Americans feared a “domino effect” of communism for good reason.  Imagine a row of dominoes, what happens when one falls into another, and then into another, and so on.  Each falling domino can knock over the one next to it.  Americans starting with President Dwight Eisenhower feared that effect when communism took over a nation:  all nearby nations could be the next to fall to that same communism.

Things worsened further in next-door Cambodia after the Americans left Vietnam.  Pol Pot took over Cambodia in 1975, and he abolished private property, money and religion and converted everything back to an agricultural society.  He emptied the cities.  His ruthless policies supposedly resulted in the death of 1-2 million Cambodians in the late 1970s.  The Hollywood movie about his dictatorship, ''The Killing Fields'', exposed his atrocities and perhaps exaggerated them as a way of blaming the United States, which once supported Pol Pot as a counterweight to Vietnam.  Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge government fell in 1979 when Vietnam invaded Cambodia after a series of violent border confrontations, and Pol Pot fled to the northern jungle with his forces.  He died from illness in 1998.  Today there are United Nations peacekeeping forces in Cambodia.

Things worsened further in next-door Cambodia after the Americans left Vietnam.  Pol Pot took over Cambodia in 1975, and he abolished private property, money and religion and converted everything back to an agricultural society.  He emptied the cities.  His ruthless policies supposedly resulted in the death of 1-2 million Cambodians in the late 1970s.  The Hollywood movie about his dictatorship, ''The Killing Fields'', exposed his atrocities and perhaps exaggerated them as a way of blaming the United States, which once supported Pol Pot as a counterweight to Vietnam.  Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge government fell in 1979 when Vietnam invaded Cambodia after a series of violent border confrontations, and Pol Pot fled to the northern jungle with his forces.  He died from illness in 1998.  Today there are United Nations peacekeeping forces in Cambodia.

===B. Latin America ===

===Latin America ===

In connection with the “Third World”<ref>Today the term “developing world” is preferred by some to the term of “Third World.”  Traditionally, the “First World” was the highly industrialized capitalistic societies of Europe, Japan, and the United States, and the “Second World” was the less developed nations under communism.</ref> of Latin America, Africa, and many parts of Asia, the Cold War became a battle for influence over the system of government adopted by any and every small country.  It seemed like there were only two choices:  communist or free (capitalist).  Both the United States and Soviet Union would compete with each other to provide to developing nations aid, military advisers, social workers (e.g., the Peace Corps from the United States), educational programs and technology.

In connection with the “Third World”<ref>Today the term “developing world” is preferred by some to the term of “Third World.”  Traditionally, the “First World” was the highly industrialized capitalistic societies of Europe, Japan, and the United States, and the “Second World” was the less developed nations under communism.</ref> of Latin America, Africa, and many parts of Asia, the Cold War became a battle for influence over the system of government adopted by any and every small country.  It seemed like there were only two choices:  communist or free (capitalist).  Both the United States and Soviet Union would compete with each other to provide to developing nations aid, military advisers, social workers (e.g., the Peace Corps from the United States), educational programs and technology.

Poverty alone cannot explain the popularity of communism. In oil-rich Venezuela, the people reelected the communist Hugo Chavez in December 2006, and he is exporting communism to other nations there.  Young and intimidating, Chavez is described as 'Castro with money.'  In April 2009, he and President Barack Obama shook hands with enthusiasm for the cameras.

Poverty alone cannot explain the popularity of communism. In oil-rich Venezuela, the people reelected the communist Hugo Chavez in December 2006, and he is exporting communism to other nations there.  Young and intimidating, Chavez is described as 'Castro with money.'  In April 2009, he and President Barack Obama shook hands with enthusiasm for the cameras.

=== C. Middle East (Southwest Asia) ===

=== Middle East (Southwest Asia) ===

The Cold War did not explain every conflict in the 20th century.  For example, the Cold War did not explain the conflicts in the Middle East (Southwest Asia), where Islam is the dominant force.  The United States helped build oil wells in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and other Arab countries, but the Shiite Muslims disapprove of the American presence.   

The Cold War did not explain every conflict in the 20th century.  For example, the Cold War did not explain the conflicts in the Middle East (Southwest Asia), where Islam is the dominant force.  The United States helped build oil wells in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and other Arab countries, but the Shiite Muslims disapprove of the American presence.   

In 1979, Muslims in Afghanistan (in Southwest Asia) revolted against the Soviet-friendly communist government there.  The Soviets responded by invading Afghanistan and attempting to suppress the revolution.  The United States reacted to this Soviet invasion by boycotting the summer Olympic Games in Moscow and providing arms to the Afghan rebels.  The Soviets struggled for a decade in Afghanistan, much as the United States had struggled in Vietnam, and the Soviets eventually withdrew from the country.  In many ways, Islam is a more powerful ideology than communism, and in this case Islam did defeat communism in Afghanistan.  But just as there are people who are communist (or socialist) Christians, there are also communist (or socialist) Muslims.

In 1979, Muslims in Afghanistan (in Southwest Asia) revolted against the Soviet-friendly communist government there.  The Soviets responded by invading Afghanistan and attempting to suppress the revolution.  The United States reacted to this Soviet invasion by boycotting the summer Olympic Games in Moscow and providing arms to the Afghan rebels.  The Soviets struggled for a decade in Afghanistan, much as the United States had struggled in Vietnam, and the Soviets eventually withdrew from the country.  In many ways, Islam is a more powerful ideology than communism, and in this case Islam did defeat communism in Afghanistan.  But just as there are people who are communist (or socialist) Christians, there are also communist (or socialist) Muslims.

=== D. Eastern Europe ===

=== Eastern Europe ===

Stalin died in 1953, and Nikita Khrushchev replaced him as the dictator over the Soviet Union.  Khrushchev was an aggressive leader who had brutally carried out Stalin’s policies while Stalin was alive, but then denounced Stalin as soon as he died and tried to purge all memory of Stalin (“destalinization”).  However, Khrushchev was nearly as evil as Stalin was.  Khrushchev viciously repressed a freedom movement in Hungary in October 1956.  He ordered an invasion with Soviet tanks and arranged for the execution of the Hungarian leader Imre Nagy, who sought to hold free elections.  Khrushchev replaced him with a pro-Soviet puppet.  Thousands of Hungarian “freedom fighters” were slaughtered by the Soviets, and the Hungarian religious leader Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty (a high-ranking clergyman in the Catholic Church) had to flee to the United States embassy to survive.  The communist dictatorship installed by the Soviets prevented him from stepping foot outside of the embassy building for the next 15 years.  Imagine never once leaving your home for 15 years!

Stalin died in 1953, and Nikita Khrushchev replaced him as the dictator over the Soviet Union.  Khrushchev was an aggressive leader who had brutally carried out Stalin’s policies while Stalin was alive, but then denounced Stalin as soon as he died and tried to purge all memory of Stalin (“destalinization”).  However, Khrushchev was nearly as evil as Stalin was.  Khrushchev viciously repressed a freedom movement in Hungary in October 1956.  He ordered an invasion with Soviet tanks and arranged for the execution of the Hungarian leader Imre Nagy, who sought to hold free elections.  Khrushchev replaced him with a pro-Soviet puppet.  Thousands of Hungarian “freedom fighters” were slaughtered by the Soviets, and the Hungarian religious leader Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty (a high-ranking clergyman in the Catholic Church) had to flee to the United States embassy to survive.  The communist dictatorship installed by the Soviets prevented him from stepping foot outside of the embassy building for the next 15 years.  Imagine never once leaving your home for 15 years!

Brezhnev ruled as brutally as Khrushchev had, though with less personal confrontation.  When Czechoslovakian leader Alexander Dubcek allowed greater freedom of speech in his country in 1968, the Soviets responded by invading with tanks just as they had in Hungary over a decade earlier.

Brezhnev ruled as brutally as Khrushchev had, though with less personal confrontation.  When Czechoslovakian leader Alexander Dubcek allowed greater freedom of speech in his country in 1968, the Soviets responded by invading with tanks just as they had in Hungary over a decade earlier.

=== E. Détente ===

=== Détente ===

President Nixon sought to take advantage of the icy relationship between the Soviet Union and China, and also to open up China to American businessmen.  Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai began to end China’s isolation from the rest of the world by inviting a U.S. table tennis team to tour China in 1971.  President Nixon then stunned the world and his conservative supporters, who opposed communism, by supporting membership in the United Nations for Communist China (the “People’s Republic of China”).

President Nixon sought to take advantage of the icy relationship between the Soviet Union and China, and also to open up China to American businessmen.  Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai began to end China’s isolation from the rest of the world by inviting a U.S. table tennis team to tour China in 1971.  President Nixon then stunned the world and his conservative supporters, who opposed communism, by supporting membership in the United Nations for Communist China (the “People’s Republic of China”).

President Jimmy Carter continued the trend by signing SALT II in 1979, which would have provided for further reductions.  In a victory for conservatives, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify that treaty.  At one point, President Carter told the American people that his 12-year-old daughter was upset about the growing problem of nuclear proliferation, by which many other nations such as India and Pakistan acquired atomic bombs.  This over-reliance by Carter on the atypical preoccupation of his young daughter seemed ridiculous to many Americans, as much of Carter’s presidency did.

President Jimmy Carter continued the trend by signing SALT II in 1979, which would have provided for further reductions.  In a victory for conservatives, the U.S. Senate refused to ratify that treaty.  At one point, President Carter told the American people that his 12-year-old daughter was upset about the growing problem of nuclear proliferation, by which many other nations such as India and Pakistan acquired atomic bombs.  This over-reliance by Carter on the atypical preoccupation of his young daughter seemed ridiculous to many Americans, as much of Carter’s presidency did.

=== F. SDI ===

=== SDI ===

In November 1980, the first modern conservative was elected president of the United States:  Ronald Reagan.  For the next 30 years, the influence of him and those who supported him is still felt.  President Reagan cut taxes, defeated communism, and had the most original and influential idea of any president in all of American history:  the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), known by its critics as “Star Wars.”

In November 1980, the first modern conservative was elected president of the United States:  Ronald Reagan.  For the next 30 years, the influence of him and those who supported him is still felt.  President Reagan cut taxes, defeated communism, and had the most original and influential idea of any president in all of American history:  the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), known by its critics as “Star Wars.”

His critics, including most scientists, ridiculed SDI as impossible and dangerous.  But those criticisms were somewhat contradictory with each other; it was precisely because SDI might be possible that it was so influential.  The Soviet Union, then led by Mikhail Gorbachev, panicked.  Gorbachev met with Reagan at a summit in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 in which Gorbachev promised almost anything if Reagan would agree to drop SDI.  The media pressure was intense for Reagan to agree.  But Reagan stood up for America. He shook his head and he said “no deal.”  The next year Reagan made a trip to the Berlin Wall, against the recommendation of his advisers, and declared to the world, “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”  Sure enough, two years later the Germans did exactly that, and tore down the Berlin Wall built by the communists.  Although Reagan and Gorbachev did sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, which banned missiles with ranges of 300 to 3,400 miles, the historic decision was Reagan’s refusal to sign a treaty at Reykjavik giving up SDI.  Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union would soon be vanquished.

His critics, including most scientists, ridiculed SDI as impossible and dangerous.  But those criticisms were somewhat contradictory with each other; it was precisely because SDI might be possible that it was so influential.  The Soviet Union, then led by Mikhail Gorbachev, panicked.  Gorbachev met with Reagan at a summit in Reykjavik, Iceland in 1986 in which Gorbachev promised almost anything if Reagan would agree to drop SDI.  The media pressure was intense for Reagan to agree.  But Reagan stood up for America. He shook his head and he said “no deal.”  The next year Reagan made a trip to the Berlin Wall, against the recommendation of his advisers, and declared to the world, “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”  Sure enough, two years later the Germans did exactly that, and tore down the Berlin Wall built by the communists.  Although Reagan and Gorbachev did sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987, which banned missiles with ranges of 300 to 3,400 miles, the historic decision was Reagan’s refusal to sign a treaty at Reykjavik giving up SDI.  Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union would soon be vanquished.

== III. Independence Movements in the 20th Century ==

== Independence Movements in the 20th Century ==

For most of the population in the world, the history of the 20th century can be summed up in one word:  '''Independence'''.  That is true for India (about 1 billion people), Indonesia (215 million), much of Africa (890 million), Israel, and Eastern Europe.  China (1 billion) and Latin America (523 million) already had independence before the 20th century, but still had nationalistic movements during the 20th century.

For most of the population in the world, the history of the 20th century can be summed up in one word:  '''Independence'''.  That is true for India (about 1 billion people), Indonesia (215 million), much of Africa (890 million), Israel, and Eastern Europe.  China (1 billion) and Latin America (523 million) already had independence before the 20th century, but still had nationalistic movements during the 20th century.

=== A. South Asia ===

=== South Asia ===

Both Hindus and Muslims sought independence in South Asia, which now consists of India and the surrounding countries of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Afghanistan.  Many of those countries did not exist at the time of World War II.  The “Indian subcontinent” today consists primarily of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

Both Hindus and Muslims sought independence in South Asia, which now consists of India and the surrounding countries of Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Afghanistan.  Many of those countries did not exist at the time of World War II.  The “Indian subcontinent” today consists primarily of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

West Pakistan then became Pakistan.  In 1999, General Pervez Musharraf seized power by overthrowing Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.  Before him, Benazir Bhutto was the woman prime minister who ran the country, despite the fact that it is Muslim.  Pakistan is one of the few Islamic nations possessing the atomic bomb, which it developed in the 21st century, much to the consternation of the rest of the world.

West Pakistan then became Pakistan.  In 1999, General Pervez Musharraf seized power by overthrowing Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif.  Before him, Benazir Bhutto was the woman prime minister who ran the country, despite the fact that it is Muslim.  Pakistan is one of the few Islamic nations possessing the atomic bomb, which it developed in the 21st century, much to the consternation of the rest of the world.

 

=== B. Southeast Asia ===

=== Southeast Asia ===

When India and Pakistan sought and obtained independence from the British, other British and Dutch colonies in Asia attained similar independence.  In Southeast Asia, Burma gained independence in 1948, and chose not to be a member of the British Commonwealth.  It then suffered from some internal conflicts between communists and military dictators.  In 1989, Burma renamed itself Myanmar.

When India and Pakistan sought and obtained independence from the British, other British and Dutch colonies in Asia attained similar independence.  In Southeast Asia, Burma gained independence in 1948, and chose not to be a member of the British Commonwealth.  It then suffered from some internal conflicts between communists and military dictators.  In 1989, Burma renamed itself Myanmar.

Corazon Aquino was succeeded in office in the Philippines by Fidel Ramos in 1992.  Term limits of one term only prevented him from serving beyond a single six-year term.

Corazon Aquino was succeeded in office in the Philippines by Fidel Ramos in 1992.  Term limits of one term only prevented him from serving beyond a single six-year term.

 

=== C. Africa ===

=== Africa ===

[[Image:Africa pol 2003.jpg|400px|right]]

[[Image:Africa pol 2003.jpg|400px|right]]

Somalia is a Muslim country that is a combination of former colonies known as British Somaliland, French Somaliland and Italian Somaliland.  Somalia has been Muslim since A.D. 900 and today is considered one of the bases for the terrorist group al-Qaida.  Roughly the size of New Jersey in area and population, Somalia is located on the coast of East Africa (the Indian Ocean) and borders both Ethiopia and Kenya.  Somalia obtained its independence in 1960.  The violence is so bad in Somalia today that it has no central government at all.  In 1993, 18 American soldiers were killed in Somalia, and on Jan. 9, 2007 the United States bombed parts of the country where al-Qaida terrorists were believed to be hiding.

Somalia is a Muslim country that is a combination of former colonies known as British Somaliland, French Somaliland and Italian Somaliland.  Somalia has been Muslim since A.D. 900 and today is considered one of the bases for the terrorist group al-Qaida.  Roughly the size of New Jersey in area and population, Somalia is located on the coast of East Africa (the Indian Ocean) and borders both Ethiopia and Kenya.  Somalia obtained its independence in 1960.  The violence is so bad in Somalia today that it has no central government at all.  In 1993, 18 American soldiers were killed in Somalia, and on Jan. 9, 2007 the United States bombed parts of the country where al-Qaida terrorists were believed to be hiding.

 

=== D. Israel ===

=== Israel ===

[[Image:Israel shaded.jpg|400px|right]]

[[Image:Israel shaded.jpg|400px|right]]

In the early 21st century, Israel endured a series of horrific suicide bombings, often targeting Jewish weddings, buses, caregivers and even children.  Weekly and sometimes daily there would be new reports of a half-dozen Jews murdered by a Muslim suicide bomber, and sometimes a second bomb would detonate to murder those who came to the aid of the initial victims.  Israel finally stopped the bombings by building a wall to end the flow of weapons and terrorists from hostile neighbors.

In the early 21st century, Israel endured a series of horrific suicide bombings, often targeting Jewish weddings, buses, caregivers and even children.  Weekly and sometimes daily there would be new reports of a half-dozen Jews murdered by a Muslim suicide bomber, and sometimes a second bomb would detonate to murder those who came to the aid of the initial victims.  Israel finally stopped the bombings by building a wall to end the flow of weapons and terrorists from hostile neighbors.

=== E. Russia ===

=== Russia ===

Russia and other nations in the Soviet Union regained their independence when the Union broke up.   

Russia and other nations in the Soviet Union regained their independence when the Union broke up.   

Muslim-dominated Chechnya in southwest Russia became a difficult issue for Yeltsin.  In 1991, it declared its independence from Russia, but Yeltsin suppressed that by sending troops to Grozny, its capital city.  Resistance by the Chechens was intense, and the troops were initially withdrawn.  But a bloody civil war has ensued for over a decade, including hostage-takings and, in 2004, the Chechen rebels seized a large school near Chechnya and killed over 300 of the children and teachers.  In 2006, Russia claimed to have killed the leader in charge of the seizure of the school.  The trouble continues.

Muslim-dominated Chechnya in southwest Russia became a difficult issue for Yeltsin.  In 1991, it declared its independence from Russia, but Yeltsin suppressed that by sending troops to Grozny, its capital city.  Resistance by the Chechens was intense, and the troops were initially withdrawn.  But a bloody civil war has ensued for over a decade, including hostage-takings and, in 2004, the Chechen rebels seized a large school near Chechnya and killed over 300 of the children and teachers.  In 2006, Russia claimed to have killed the leader in charge of the seizure of the school.  The trouble continues.

=== F. Eastern Europe ===

=== Eastern Europe ===

The defeat of communism in the Soviet Union really began in the Eastern European “satellite” countries of communism, initially in Poland and Hungary.  In 1978, the Roman Catholic Church elected the first non-Italian pope in many centuries, elevating a Polish cardinal who had been active in the anticommunist movement in his homeland of Poland.  Pope John Paul II then became a leader and hero to his countrymen in Poland, which is nearly 100% Catholic.  Another Polish leader, Lech Walesa, led a strike against a shipyard in Gdansk in 1980, demanding government recognition for his labor union called Solidarity.  The Polish communist government was weak at this time and vacillated in its response, but in 1981 it cracked down on Solidarity and imposed marital law throughout the country.  A popular anticommunist priest was then murdered.  An assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II, also thought to have been organized by communists, injured but did not kill him.

The defeat of communism in the Soviet Union really began in the Eastern European “satellite” countries of communism, initially in Poland and Hungary.  In 1978, the Roman Catholic Church elected the first non-Italian pope in many centuries, elevating a Polish cardinal who had been active in the anticommunist movement in his homeland of Poland.  Pope John Paul II then became a leader and hero to his countrymen in Poland, which is nearly 100% Catholic.  Another Polish leader, Lech Walesa, led a strike against a shipyard in Gdansk in 1980, demanding government recognition for his labor union called Solidarity.  The Polish communist government was weak at this time and vacillated in its response, but in 1981 it cracked down on Solidarity and imposed marital law throughout the country.  A popular anticommunist priest was then murdered.  An assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II, also thought to have been organized by communists, injured but did not kill him.

Ethnic conflict was even worse in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which consists of Muslims, Croats and Serbs, who are Christian.  Bosnia-Herzegovina first declared its independence from Serbia, but the Christian Bosnian Serbs did not want to live under Muslim rule and a civil war began in March 1992 over whether Bosnia would split from Serbia.  Anti-Christian press accused the Serbs of “ethnic cleansing,” or racially motivated mass murders, as the Serbs were allegedly killing off Bosnian Muslims.  A peacekeeping army was sent by the United Nations and, in December 1995, the Muslims, Croats and Serbs signed a peace treaty.  In 1996 a three-person presidency including a leader from each group was elected.

Ethnic conflict was even worse in Bosnia-Herzegovina, which consists of Muslims, Croats and Serbs, who are Christian.  Bosnia-Herzegovina first declared its independence from Serbia, but the Christian Bosnian Serbs did not want to live under Muslim rule and a civil war began in March 1992 over whether Bosnia would split from Serbia.  Anti-Christian press accused the Serbs of “ethnic cleansing,” or racially motivated mass murders, as the Serbs were allegedly killing off Bosnian Muslims.  A peacekeeping army was sent by the United Nations and, in December 1995, the Muslims, Croats and Serbs signed a peace treaty.  In 1996 a three-person presidency including a leader from each group was elected.

=== G. Controversy of the United Nations Troops ===

=== Controversy of the United Nations Troops ===

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995.  Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force.  Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N.  When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution and no recruiter or officer mentioned serving under U.N. command.  

The conflict in Bosnia caused the United Nations (U.N.) to send troops, including American soldiers, into the region in 1995.  Michael G. New was an American soldier who objected to wearing United Nations insignia as part of his military uniform during a deployment to the nearby Republic of Macedonia as part of the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force.  Michael New objected to changing his allegiance from the United States to the U.N.  When Michael New enlisted in the U.S. Army in February 1993, he took an oath to defend the U.S. Constitution and no recruiter or officer mentioned serving under U.N. command.  

The military judge and American courts all rejected New’s arguments and held that the legality of the deployment was a "non-justiciable" political question that could not be handled by a judge, and which should be better handled by a political branch of government.  Soldier New received a bad-conduct discharge.  New has continued to challenge this in the court system.

The military judge and American courts all rejected New’s arguments and held that the legality of the deployment was a "non-justiciable" political question that could not be handled by a judge, and which should be better handled by a political branch of government.  Soldier New received a bad-conduct discharge.  New has continued to challenge this in the court system.

 

=== H. China ===

=== China ===

[[Image:China rel01.jpg|400px|right]]

[[Image:China rel01.jpg|400px|right]]

On July 1, 1997, Great Britain’s lease on Hong Kong expired and it returned its former colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalistic for another 50 years.

On July 1, 1997, Great Britain’s lease on Hong Kong expired and it returned its former colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalistic for another 50 years.

=== I. Latin America ===

=== Latin America ===

"Latin America" is Spanish America and Brazil, where Portuguese is the primary language.  In other words, Latin America is all of America south of the United States.  Latin America is thus Mexico, Central and South America.  It has 523 million people, far more than the U.S. population of about 300 million.

"Latin America" is Spanish America and Brazil, where Portuguese is the primary language.  In other words, Latin America is all of America south of the United States.  Latin America is thus Mexico, Central and South America.  It has 523 million people, far more than the U.S. population of about 300 million.