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'''Taverns''', or '''public houses''' (in England and Australia, '''pubs''') serving food, beer and rum, performed a major social and communications role in many countries.
'''Taverns''', or '''Saloons''' or '''Bats''' or '''Inns''' or (in England and Australia, '''public houses''' and '''pubs''') serving food, beer and rum, performed a major social and communications role in many countries over the last 500 years.
==North America==
==North America==
Despite efforts by social reformers to regulate taverns in Ontario, Canada, physical violence linked to drinking was common. Indeed, 19th-century masculinity, derived from earlier models of fur traders in the region, was often predicated on feats of strength and stamina and on skill in fighting. Taverns were the most common public gathering place for males of the working class and thus the site of frequent confrontations. Men's honor and men's bodies, socially and historically linked, found public, and often destructive, expression in the tavern setting.<ref> Kevin B. Wamsley, and Robert S. Kossuth, "Fighting it out in Nineteenth-Century Upper Canada/Canada West: Masculinities And Physical Challenges in the Tavern." ''Journal of Sport History'' 2000 27(3): 405-430. 0094-1700 </ref>
Despite efforts by social reformers to regulate taverns in Ontario, Canada, physical violence linked to drinking was common. Indeed, 19th-century masculinity, derived from earlier models of fur traders in the region, was often predicated on feats of strength and stamina and on skill in fighting. Taverns were the most common public gathering place for males of the working class and thus the site of frequent confrontations. Men's honor and men's bodies, socially and historically linked, found public, and often destructive, expression in the tavern setting.<ref> Kevin B. Wamsley, and Robert S. Kossuth, "Fighting it out in Nineteenth-Century Upper Canada/Canada West: Masculinities And Physical Challenges in the Tavern." ''Journal of Sport History'' 2000 27(3): 405-430. 0094-1700 </ref>
===Europe===
===Europe===
===Britain===
Although respectable upper-working-class and lower-middle-class women in Britain began patronizing pubs in unprecedented numbers during World War I, women did not achieve full equality in public drinking places before World War II. Women in pubs provoked intense opposition from authorities, but attracting women's business was a major incentive for brewers to reform public houses. Unreformed slum pubs, unregenerate regional subcultures, uncooperative magistrates, and unsympathetic feminists all prevented the full attainment of equality in public drinking in the interwar years.<ref> David W. Gutzke, "Gender, Class, and Public Drinking in Britain during the First World War." ''Social History'' 1994 27(54): 367-391. </ref>
===France===
===France===
After 1500, taxes on wine and other alcoholic beverages grew increasingly more burdensome, not only because of the continual increase in the level of taxation, but also because of the bewildering variety and multiplicity of the taxes. This chaotic system was enforced by an army of tax collectors. The resultant opposition took many forms. Wine growers and tavern keepers concealed wine and falsified their methods of selling it to take advantage of lower tax rates. The retailers also engaged in clandestine refilling of casks from hidden stocks. Wine merchants stealthily circumvented inspection stations to avoid local import duties. When apprehended, some defrauders reacted with passive resignation, while others resorted to violence. Situated at the heart of the country town or village, the tavern was one of the traditional centers of social and political life before 1789, a meeting place for both the local population and travelers passing through and a refuge for rogues and scoundrels. Taverns symbolized opposition to the regime and to religion.
[[Emile Zola]]'s novel ''L'Assommoir'' ["The tavern"] (1877) depicted the social conditions typical of alcoholism in Paris among the working classes. The drunk destroyed not only his own body, but also his employment, his family, and other interpersonal relationships. The characters Gervaise Macquart and her husband Coupeau exemplified with great realism the physical and moral degradation of alcoholics. Zola's correspondence with physicians reveal he used authentic medical sources for his realistic depictions in the novel.
[[Emile Zola]]'s novel ''L'Assommoir'' ["The tavern"] (1877) depicted the social conditions typical of alcoholism in Paris among the working classes. The drunk destroyed not only his own body, but also his employment, his family, and other interpersonal relationships. The characters Gervaise Macquart and her husband Coupeau exemplified with great realism the physical and moral degradation of alcoholics. Zola's correspondence with physicians reveal he used authentic medical sources for his realistic depictions in the novel.
===Italy===
===Italy===
===North American===
===North American===
* Conroy, David W. ''In Public Houses: Drink and the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts'' (1995)
* Conroy, David W. ''In Public Houses: Drink and the Revolution of Authority in Colonial Massachusetts'' (1995)
* Duis, Perry. '' The saloon: public drinking in Chicago and Boston, 1880-1920'' (1975) 416 pages; [http://books.google.com/books?id=fldcQqVlVNEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:perry+inauthor:duis&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 excerpt and text search]
* Gottlieb, David> "The Neighborhood Tavern and the Cocktail Lounge a Study of Class Differences." ''American Journal of Sociology'', Vol. 62, No. 6 (May, 1957), pp. 559-562 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2773130 in JSTOR], Chicago in 1950s
* Lemasters, E. E. ''Blue-Collar Aristocrats: Life-Styles at a Working Class Tavern.'' (1975) in Wisconsin in the 1970s.
* Lemasters, E. E. ''Blue-Collar Aristocrats: Life-Styles at a Working Class Tavern.'' (1975) in Wisconsin in the 1970s.
* McBurney, Margaret and Byers, Mary. ''Tavern in the Town: Early Inns and Taverns of Ontario.'' (1987). 259 pp.
* McBurney, Margaret and Byers, Mary. ''Tavern in the Town: Early Inns and Taverns of Ontario.'' (1987). 259 pp.