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→Russia
====Russia====
====Russia====
Alone among the major European nations, Russia in the 19th century did not emancipate its Jewish subjects. Popular anti-Semitism (which had an anticapitalist bias) proceeded from, and flourished with the support of, anti-Jewish laws and official policies that tried either to forcibly integrate Jews into or to segregate them from the rest of Russian society - especially rural society. Pogroms –systematic slaughters of thousands of Jews in certain areas--happened in clusters, as in 1881-82 and 1905-06, and were related to severe political crises involving the issue of Jewish emancipation. Anti-Semitism increased during World War I with the need for scapegoats, but after the February Revolution of 1917 was no longer sustained by discriminatory legislation.
Alone among the major European nations, Russia in the 19th century did not emancipate its Jewish subjects. Popular anti-Semitism (which had an anticapitalist bias) proceeded from, and flourished with the support of, anti-Jewish laws and official policies that tried either to forcibly integrate Jews into or to segregate them from the rest of Russian society - especially rural society. Pogroms –systematic slaughters of thousands of Jews in certain areas--happened in clusters, as in 1881-82 and 1905-06, and were related to severe political crises involving the issue of Jewish emancipation. Anti-Semitism increased during World War I with the need for scapegoats, but after the February Revolution of 1917 was no longer sustained by discriminatory legislation.
====Italy====
Anti-Semitism played a far smaller role in Italy than in other European countries. One possible explanation is the high degree of assimilation achieved by the Italian Jewish community. However, assimilation elsewhere in Europe was not a bar to anti-Semitism. A more plausible reason is the lateness of industrialization, which meant that the lower middle classes did not fall victim to the economic and social anxieties experienced by the petite bourgeoisie of Germany and France. Other factors are the extremely small numbers of Italian Jews, the ethnically homogeneous nature of the Italian population, which meant that the Italians did not suffer from the paranoid insecurity of Germans who were confronted by large minorities within their borders, and Italy's long history of not succumbing to xenophobia and its weak race consciousness.
==1890-1945==
==1890-1945==