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As a civil leader he played a major role in the [[French Revolution]], then ended it when he became First Consul in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804. He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems.  The Napoleonic Civil Code is considered the first successful codification that strongly influenced the law of many other countries.  

As a civil leader he played a major role in the [[French Revolution]], then ended it when he became First Consul in 1799 and Emperor of France in 1804. He modernized the French military, fiscal, political legal and religious systems.  The Napoleonic Civil Code is considered the first successful codification that strongly influenced the law of many other countries.  

He was constantly at war against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies, forced to abdicate in 1814 and sent into exile at Elba (an island in the Tyrannian Sea). In 1815, after escaping from Elba, he took control of France again, raised a new army, and almost succeded in defeating the isolated Prussian and British forces but was defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. Helena--an island in the South Atlantic Ocean; there he died 6 years later, in 1821. His image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

He was constantly at war against Britain with a complex, ever-changing coalition of European nations on both sides. Refusing to compromise after his immense defeat in Russia in 1812, he was overwhelmed by a coalition of enemies, forced to abdicate in 1814 and sent into exile at Elba (an island in the Tyrannian Sea). In 1815, after escaping from Elba, he took control of France again, raised a new army, and almost succeded in defeating the isolated Prussian and British forces but was defeated at the [[Battle of Waterloo]].  He was exiled to St. Helena--an island in the South Atlantic Ocean; there he died 6 years later, in 1821. His image and memory are central to French national identity, but he is despised by the British and Russians and is a controversial figure in Germany and elsewhere in Europe.

==Early History==

==Early History==

He was born ''Napoleone di Buonaparte'' in the town of Ajaccio, one year after the island of [[Corsica]] was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa ([[Italy]]). He was the second son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer with some claim to noble rank; his mother was Marie-Letizia Bonaparte. The Buonaparte's were a wealthy family from the Corsican nobility.  

He was born ''Napoleone di Buonaparte'' in the town of Ajaccio, one year after the island of [[Corsica]] was transferred to France by the Republic of Genoa ([[Italy]]). He was the second son of Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer of the minor nobility; his mother was Marie-Letizia Bonaparte. The Buonopartes were, although members of the lower aristocracy, destitute.

 

Carlo Buonaparte had fought for Corsican independence under [[Pasquale Paoli]]; he now switched and became a supporter of the French regime, which recognized his noble rank.  When the King offered free education to impoverished noble families, Napoleon and several siblings were educated at royal expense. In 1779, after a few months' schooling at Autun to improve his French--he always had a thick Corsican accent--Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne, which was run by a Catholic religious order.  He remained there for five years. Taunted by his schoolmates as being provincial from the wildest and most violent part of France, and uncouth, a pauper even among the aristocratic poor, he professed an intense Corsican patriotism and hatred of the French "oppressors." In 1784 he was selected to attend the top-ranked Ecole Militaire in [[Paris]] to study the science and mathematics of artillery. Napoleon spent the year in luxury such as he had never known before, and graduated 42nd in a class of 130. Commissioned as second lieutenant of artillery, he was sent to Valence in southern France.

Carlo Buonaparte had fought for Corsican independence under [[Pasquale Paoli]]; he now switched and became a supporter of the French regime, which recognized his noble rank.  When the King offered free education to impoverished noble families, Napoleon and several siblings were educated at royal expense. In 1779, after a few months' schooling at Autun to improve his French--he always had a thick Corsican accent--Napoleon entered the military academy at Brienne, which was run by a Catholic religious order.  He remained there for five years. Taunted by his schoolmates as being provincial from the wildest and most violent part of France, and uncouth, a pauper even among the aristocratic poor, he professed an intense Corsican patriotism and hatred of the French "oppressors." In 1784 he was selected to attend the top-ranked Ecole Militaire in [[Paris]] to study the science and mathematics of artillery. Napoleon spent the year in luxury such as he had never known before, and graduated 42nd in a class of 130. Commissioned as second lieutenant of artillery, he was sent to Valence in southern France.

[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Rosetta Stone]]]]  

[[Image:Rosetta Stone.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Rosetta Stone]]]]  

He easily defeated the 60,000-man army of the Marmelukes (horsemen) at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (July 21, 1798).  

He easily defeated the 60,000-man army of the Mamelukes (horsemen) at the [[Battle of the Pyramids]] (July 21, 1798).  

Intending to transplant French liberty to Egypt, Napoleon encountered stiff resistance and reacted with the same barbarism and repression used by the Ottomans.  <ref> Juan Cole, ''Napoleon's Egypt'' (2007); Irene A. Bierman, ed., ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (2003)</ref> The British under Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] sank Napoleon's entire fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]] (August 1, 1798), trapping the French army as the [[Turkish]] main army approached. Napoleon attacked first, invading Syria and defeating the Turks in a bloody massacre.  As he laid siege to Acre, plague broke out among his troops, forcing Napoleon to retreat back to Egypt.  At the [[Battle of Aboukir]] (July 25, 1799), his 6000 men defeated a Turkish force three times as strong. Napoleon then slipped through the blockade and returned to France. <ref> The British defeated the French army in Egypt in 1801 and allowed it to return to France. </ref>

Intending to transplant French liberty to Egypt, Napoleon encountered stiff resistance and reacted with the same barbarism and repression used by the Ottomans.  <ref> Juan Cole, ''Napoleon's Egypt'' (2007); Irene A. Bierman, ed., ''Napoleon in Egypt'' (2003)</ref> The British under Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] sank Napoleon's entire fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]] (August 1, 1798), trapping the French army as the [[Turkish]] main army approached. Napoleon attacked first, invading Syria and defeating the Turks in a bloody massacre.  As he laid siege to Acre, plague broke out among his troops, forcing Napoleon to retreat back to Egypt.  At the [[Battle of Aboukir]] (July 25, 1799), his 6000 men defeated a Turkish force three times as strong. Napoleon then slipped through the blockade and returned to France. <ref> The British defeated the French army in Egypt in 1801 and allowed it to return to France. </ref> Although he won great victories in Egypt, disease and the heat decimated his ranks.  He left most of his forces in Egypt under the command of Jean-Baptiste Kleber, who continued to fight in Egypt for another two years.

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

===Coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire===

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred, he overthrew the Directory by a coup d'etat on November 9, 1799 ("the 18th Brumaire" according to the revolutionary calendar), and closed down the council of five hundred.  Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: no more representative government, assemblies, a collegian executive, or liberty.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

Despite the failures in Egypt, Napoleon returned to a hero's welcome. In alliance with the director [[Emmanuel Sieyès]] and his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the council of five hundred,he muscled the Council of 500 into electing a consular government as the executive branch.  Napoleon became "first consul" for ten years, with two consuls appointed by him who had consultative voices only. His power was confirmed by the new constitution ("Constitution of the year VIII"), originally devised by Sieyès to give Napoleon a minor role, but rewritten by Napoleon, and accepted by direct popular vote (3,000,000 in favor, 1,567 opposed). The constitution preserved the appearance of a [[republic]] but in reality established a military dictatorship. The days of Brumaire sounded the end of the short-lived republic: no more representative government, assemblies, a collegian executive, or liberty.<ref> Furet (1996) p 212</ref>

==Diplomacy==

==Diplomacy==

===Slavery===

===Slavery===

Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever.  Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. Issn: 1539-3402 Fulltext: in Project Muse </ref>  Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref> Englund p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>   

Napoleon's major adventure into the Caribbean--sending 30,000 troops in 1802 to retake Saint Domingue (Haiti) from ex-slaves under [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]] who had revolted. Napoleon wanted to preserve France's financial benefits from the colony's sugar and coffee crops; he then planned to establish a major base at New Orleans. He therefore reestablished slavery in Haiti and Guadeloupe, where it had been abolished after rebellions. Slaves and black freedmen fought the French for their freedom and independence. Revolutionary ideals played a central role in the fighting for it was the slaves and their comrades who were fighting for the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality, while the French troops under General Charles Leclerc fought to restore the order of the ancien régime. The goal of reestablishing slavery - which explicitly contradicted the ideals of the French Revolution - demoralized the French troops. The demoralized French soldiers were unable to cope with the tropical diseases, and most died of yellow fever.  Slavery was reimposed in Guadeloupe but not in Haiti, which became an independent black republic. <ref> Philippe R. Girard, "Liberte, Egalite, Esclavage: French Revolutionary Ideals and the Failure of the Leclerc Expedition to Saint-Domingue." ''French Colonial History'' 2005 6: 55-77. Issn: 1539-3402 Fulltext: in Project Muse </ref>  Napoleon's vast colonial dreams for Egypt, India, the Caribbean, Louisiana, and even Australia were all doomed for lack of a fleet capable of matching Britain's Royal Navy. Realizing the fiasco Napoleon liquidated the Haiti project, brought home the survivors and sold off Louisiana to the U.S.<ref> Englund p 259. Slavery remained in Guadeloupe until 1848.</ref>   

 

The treaty of Tilsit in 1807 ended the War of the Third Coalition--in which Russia, Prussia, and Austria defeated in turn and Napoleon gained control of most of the continent.   

In 1805, Britain persuaded Austria and Russia to declare war of France and attack from the east while Napoleon was occupied with his plans for an invasion of Britain (dashed by the naval battle at Trafalgar later in the campaign).  Napoleon miraculously moved so quickly to react that not only was he able to catch 30,000 troops under the Archduke Ferdinand, isolated from the rest of the coalition, but completely surrounded them and forced their bloodless surrender (on the 20th October 1805, the Battle of Trafalgar took place on the day after).  Napoleon continued to march into Austrian territory, capturing Vienna.  Napoleon's army however was beginning to tire and he badly needed a battle by which he could force peace.  He defeated the Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz on December 2nd, the anniversary of his coronation.  The battle destroyed the Russian and Austrian army under the personal command of the Tsar Nicholas.  The Peace of Pressburg deprived Austria of territory and forced her to pay an indemnity.  Napoleon then turned his attention to Prussia, who was going to attack France but didn't mobilize in time for the fighting.  Napoleon declared war after the conclusion of the Peace of Pressburg and destroyed the Prussian army at the battle of Jena-Aurstadt.  Napoleon, remembering that Russia hadn't sued for peace after Austerlitz decided to persue the retreating Russian army through Poland.  He enjoyed early sucess, pushing the Russians back and capturing Warsaw but was weakened at a bloody stalemate at Eylau.  Napoleon, determined on a "spring recovery" pushed the Russians further into Poland, delivering a crippling blow at the Battle of Friedland.  The Peace of Tilsit between Prussia, Russia and France did little to the Russians, instead depriving Prussia of huge amounts of land while Russia only had to give up part of Poland.  Aside from that, Prussia had to pay an indemnity and had it's army restricted to a certain size while Russia only had outlaw British goods from its ports.  Napoleon and the Tsar became close friends after the Treaty.

   

==Military action to 1812==

==Military action to 1812==