Changes

After 1919 the Soviets based in Moscow energetically promoted Communism, and for a while formed an alliance with the KMT.  [[Mao Zedong]], founded the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) in 1921 in Shanghai. The KMT, in precarious position, accepted Soviet money and military advisors in China. The Soviets made the CCP join the KMT, thus forming the First United Front. The KMT gradually increased its geographical controls from its Canton  base. Sun Yat-sen died in 1925.  

After 1919 the Soviets based in Moscow energetically promoted Communism, and for a while formed an alliance with the KMT.  [[Mao Zedong]], founded the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) in 1921 in Shanghai. The KMT, in precarious position, accepted Soviet money and military advisors in China. The Soviets made the CCP join the KMT, thus forming the First United Front. The KMT gradually increased its geographical controls from its Canton  base. Sun Yat-sen died in 1925.  

==Chiang Kai-shek unites China==

==Chiang Kai-shek unites China==

[[Chiang Kai-shek]] (1887-1975) became the KMT strong man. In 1926 Chiang led a millitary operation known as the "Northern Expedition" against the warlords that controled much of the country and defeated them. Next, Chiang tried to destroy the Chinese Communists. In Shanghai, the leading city, in  April 1927 he purged and often executed the Communists in the KMT.<ref> The event is also known as the Shanghai Massacre of 1927. See Tien-wei Wu,  "A Review of the Wuhan Debacle: the Kuomintang-Communist Split of 1927." '' Journal of Asian Studies'' 1969 29(1): 125-143 </ref> The Northern Expedition proved successful and the KMT party came to power throughout China (except Manchuria) in 1927 with Chiang the unelected strong-man or dictator. The capital of China was moved to [[Nanjing]] in order to be closer to the KMT's strong base in southern China.

Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975) became the KMT strong man. In 1926 Chiang led a millitary operation known as the "Northern Expedition" against the warlords that controled much of the country and defeated them. Next, Chiang tried to destroy the Chinese Communists. In Shanghai, the leading city, in  April 1927 he purged and often executed the Communists in the KMT.<ref> The event is also known as the Shanghai Massacre of 1927. See Tien-wei Wu,  "A Review of the Wuhan Debacle: the Kuomintang-Communist Split of 1927." '' Journal of Asian Studies'' 1969 29(1): 125-143 </ref> The Northern Expedition proved successful and the KMT party came to power throughout China (except Manchuria) in 1927 with Chiang the unelected strong-man or dictator. The capital of China was moved to [[Nanjing]] in order to be closer to the KMT's strong base in southern China.

The party was always concerned with strengthening Chinese identity at the same time it was discarding old traditions in the name of modernity. In 1929, the KMT government suppressed the textbook ''Modern Chinese History,'' widely used in secondary education. The Nationalists were concerned that, by not admitting the existence of the earliest emperors in ancient Chinese history, the book would weaken the foundation of the state. The case of the ''Modern Chinese History'' textbook reflects the symptoms of the period: banning the textbook strengthened the Nationalists' ideological control but also revealed their fear of the New Culture Movement and its more liberal ideological implications.

The party was always concerned with strengthening Chinese identity at the same time it was discarding old traditions in the name of modernity. In 1929, the KMT government suppressed the textbook ''Modern Chinese History,'' widely used in secondary education. The Nationalists were concerned that, by not admitting the existence of the earliest emperors in ancient Chinese history, the book would weaken the foundation of the state. The case of the ''Modern Chinese History'' textbook reflects the symptoms of the period: banning the textbook strengthened the Nationalists' ideological control but also revealed their fear of the New Culture Movement and its more liberal ideological implications.

:''Main article: [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]''

:''Main article: [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]''

Meanwhile an aggressive [[Japan]] invaded [[Manchuria]], an independent warlord-controlled area of northeast China rich in iron and coal deposits needed by Japanese industry and in March 1932 set up the [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]]. On 24 February, 1933, the [[League of Nations]] adopted a resolution calling for the non-recognition of Manchukuo, however the [[Soviet Union]] nonetheless did recognize Manchukuo and sold Japan the Chinese Eastern Railway in 1935. This Manchurian invasion was the beginning of [[World War II]] in Asia and is commonly referred to as the [[Mukden Incident]]. Japan followed this with an invasion of China in 1937 along the Yangtze River. The Chinese civil war stopped temporarily to defend against the Japanese invasion.  The Soviet Union brought 30 thousand Red army troops to Mongolia and stationed them along the southern and south-eastern border of Mongolia on the pretext of having found the Japanese plan of military occupation of Mongolia". At the same time, the Soviet leadership gave instructions to carry out mass arrests and the execution of several ten thousands of Mongolian government, party and army cadres on the pretext of "rooting out the spy organization."

Meanwhile an aggressive Japan invaded [[Manchuria]], an independent warlord-controlled area of northeast China rich in iron and coal deposits needed by Japanese industry and in March 1932 set up the [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]]. On 24 February, 1933, the [[League of Nations]] adopted a resolution calling for the non-recognition of Manchukuo, however the [[Soviet Union]] nonetheless did recognize Manchukuo and sold Japan the Chinese Eastern Railway in 1935. This Manchurian invasion was the beginning of [[World War II]] in Asia and is commonly referred to as the [[Mukden Incident]]. Japan followed this with an invasion of China in 1937 along the Yangtze River. The Chinese civil war stopped temporarily to defend against the Japanese invasion.  The Soviet Union brought 30 thousand Red army troops to Mongolia and stationed them along the southern and south-eastern border of Mongolia on the pretext of having found the Japanese plan of military occupation of Mongolia". At the same time, the Soviet leadership gave instructions to carry out mass arrests and the execution of several ten thousands of Mongolian government, party and army cadres on the pretext of "rooting out the spy organization."

==Kuomintang's Two Wars==

==Kuomintang's Two Wars==

The Nationalist Chinese led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]] received aid from the United States to fight against the Japanese, but in reality they used that money to prepare for civil war against the communists led by [[Mao Zedong]] (also known as “Mao-Tse-tung”). After the war, the communists (from the northwest) attempted to conquer the Nationalists (from the southwest). Civil war raged from 1946 to 1949. Due to many desertions by soldiers from the Nationalist army to the communists, Mao prevailed by October 1949. Mao had promised land for the peasants and renamed the country the People’s Republic of China. Jiang fled with Nationalists to the island of Taiwan, and continued to claim sovereignty over all of China, a stance which the United States supported until [[Richard Nixon]] reversed course in 1971.

The Nationalist Chinese led by Chiang Kai-shek received aid from the United States to fight against the Japanese, but in reality they used that money to prepare for civil war against the communists led by [[Mao Zedong]]. After the war, the communists (from the northwest) attempted to conquer the Nationalists (from the southwest). Civil war raged from 1946 to 1949. Due to many desertions by soldiers from the Nationalist army to the communists, Mao prevailed by October 1949. Mao had promised land for the peasants and renamed the country the People’s Republic of China. Jiang fled with Nationalists to the island of Taiwan, and continued to claim sovereignty over all of China, a stance which the United States supported until [[Richard Nixon]] reversed course in 1971.

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Boorman, Howard L., ed.  ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China.'' (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967-1979).  600 short scholarly biographies [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&dq=+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Republican+China&pg=PP1&ots=2vo5nw0qS0&sig=fxzwBb475KIbQBr8KGRDrkVSvl8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA1,M1 excerpt and text search]

* Boorman, Howard L., ed.  ''Biographical Dictionary of Republican China.'' (Vol. I-IV and Index. 1967-1979).  600 short scholarly biographies [http://books.google.com/books?id=r3AJFusMHJwC&dq=+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Republican+China&pg=PP1&ots=2vo5nw0qS0&sig=fxzwBb475KIbQBr8KGRDrkVSvl8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPA1,M1 excerpt and text search]

* Botjer, George. ''A Short History of Nationalist China, 1919–1949'' (1979). 312pp

* Botjer, George. ''A Short History of Nationalist China, 1919–1949'' (1979). 312pp

*Carroll, Anne W. "Who Lost China", (1996) [http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR89102.TXT online]   

*Carroll, Anne W. "Who Lost China", ;;Faith and Reason'' (Spring 1989)[http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/FR89102.TXT online]   

* Epoch Times. ''On the Unscrupulous Nature of the Chinese Communist Party''], ''The Epoch Times,'' 2005. [http://en.epochtimes.com/news/4-12-30/25242.html online]  

* Epoch Times. ''On the Unscrupulous Nature of the Chinese Communist Party'', ''The Epoch Times,'' 2005. [http://en.epochtimes.com/news/4-12-30/25242.html online]  

* Fairbank, John K., ed. ''The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12, Republican China 1912-1949. Part 1.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1983. 1001 pp.  

* Fairbank, John K., ed. ''The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 12, Republican China 1912-1949. Part 1.'' (1983). 1001 pp.  

* Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China, 1912-1949, Part 2.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1986. 1092 pp.  

* Fairbank, John K. and Feuerwerker, Albert, eds. ''The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 13: Republican China, 1912-1949, Part 2.'' (1986). 1092 pp.  

* Fenby, Jonathan. ''Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost'' (2004), 592pp [http://www.amazon.com/Chiang-Kai-Shek-Chinas-Generalissimo/dp/B000T9VO2U/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214082451&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]

* Fenby, Jonathan. ''Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost'' (2004), 592pp [http://www.amazon.com/Chiang-Kai-Shek-Chinas-Generalissimo/dp/B000T9VO2U/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1214082451&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]

* Hille, Kathrin. "Resurgent KMT must confront its dark past," ''Financial Times'' December 6, 2007 [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e7914d78-a39e-11dc-b229-0000779fd2ac.html?nclick_check=1 online]

* Hille, Kathrin. "Resurgent KMT must confront its dark past," ''Financial Times'' December 6, 2007 [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e7914d78-a39e-11dc-b229-0000779fd2ac.html?nclick_check=1 online]

* Hood, Steven J.  ''The Kuomintang and the Democratization of Taiwan.'' Westview, 1997. 181 pp.  [http://www.questia.com/read/9937198 online from [[Questia]]]

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* Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine. ''China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937-1945'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/chinas-bitter-victory-the-war-with-japan-1937-1945-by-james-c-hsiung-steven-i-levine.jsp online from [[Questia]]]

* Hsiung, James C. and Steven I. Levine. ''China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937-1945'' (1992) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/chinas-bitter-victory-the-war-with-japan-1937-1945-by-james-c-hsiung-steven-i-levine.jsp online from [[Questia]]]

* Perleberg, Max. ''Who's Who in Modern China (From the Beginning of the Chinese Republic to the End of 1953): Over Two Thousand Detailed Biographies of the Most Important Men Who Took Part in the Great Struggle for China, Including Detailed Histories of the Political Parties, Government Organisations, a Glossary of New Terms Used in Contemporary Chinese '' (1954) [http://www.questia.com/read/98871284 online from [[Questia]]]

* Perleberg, Max. ''Who's Who in Modern China (From the Beginning of the Chinese Republic to the End of 1953): Over Two Thousand Detailed Biographies of the Most Important Men Who Took Part in the Great Struggle for China, Including Detailed Histories of the Political Parties, Government Organisations, a Glossary of New Terms Used in Contemporary Chinese '' (1954) [http://www.questia.com/read/98871284 online from [[Questia]]]

* Wachman, Alan M. ''Taiwan: National Identity and Democratization'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/taiwan-national-identity-and-democratization-by-alan-m-wachman.jsp online edition]

* Wachman, Alan M. ''Taiwan: National Identity and Democratization'' (1994) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/taiwan-national-identity-and-democratization-by-alan-m-wachman.jsp online edition]

* Yu, George T. ''Party Politics in Republican China the Kuomintang, 1912- 1924'' (1966) [http://www.questia.com/read/3073072 online from [[Questia]]]  

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* Zanasi, Margherita.  ''Saving the Nation: Economic Modernity in Republican China.'' U. of Chicago Press, 2006. 320 pp.   

* Zanasi, Margherita.  ''Saving the Nation: Economic Modernity in Republican China.'' (2006). 320 pp.   

===Primary sources===

===Primary sources===