Changes

'''Migration''' is the field of [[demography]] that studies the causes, patterns, and consequences of large-scale permanent change in residence. The basic tools are statictical analysis of census data and surveys.  It is a major topic in historical demography, which traces the large-scale movement of populations over time and space.  '''Migration''' is the process of moving out, while '''immigration''' is the process of moving in.

 

'''Migration''' is the field of [[demography]] that studies the causes, patterns, and consequences of large-scale permanent change in residence. The basic tools are statistical analysis of census data and surveys.  It is a major topic in historical demography, which traces the large-scale movement of populations over time and space.  '''Migration''' is the process of moving out, while '''immigration''' is the process of moving in.

==Definitions==

==Definitions==

===Explanator models: The Push Pull Theory===

===Explanator models: The Push Pull Theory===

According to Ravenstein’s push-pull theory, adverse factors at home can "push" people out, making them want to emigrate.  Attractive factors abroad can "pull" people in.  The model is not deterministic—many more people think about migrating than actually do so, and chance and luck plays large roles.

According to Ravenstein's push-pull theory, adverse factors at home can "push" people out, making them want to emigrate.  Attractive factors abroad can "pull" people in.  The model is not deterministic—many more people think about migrating than actually do so, and chance and luck plays large roles.

   

   

The most important push factor is difficulty in making a good living at home.  In an agricultural society, there may be a shortage of land and a surplus of workers, so that over time either the farms become smaller, or the excess population leaves agriculture.  In an urban society if there is stagnation in industry, unemployment results unless people leave.  In any given place, some people will be strongly rooted and others will be more eager to move on.  For example, eldest sons who are in line to inherit the family farm would be more rooted than younger sons with poor prospects of ever owning land.  Workers unhappy with their jobs or pessimistic about future prospects would be more willing to consider a move to improve their possibilities.  

The most important push factor is difficulty in making a good living at home.  In an agricultural society, there may be a shortage of land and a surplus of workers, so that over time either the farms become smaller, or the excess population leaves agriculture.  In an urban society if there is stagnation in industry, unemployment results unless people leave.  In any given place, some people will be strongly rooted and others will be more eager to move on.  For example, eldest sons who are in line to inherit the family farm would be more rooted than younger sons with poor prospects of ever owning land.  Workers unhappy with their jobs or pessimistic about future prospects would be more willing to consider a move to improve their possibilities.  

Other push factors include religious or ethnic persecution, or the threat of war, famine or other disaster, or a general pessimism and malaise about the future.

Other push factors include religious or ethnic persecution, or the threat of war, famine or other disaster, or a general pessimism and [[malaise]] about the future.

Pull factors are attractions that exist in the destination, especially freedom to achieve and prosper.  The psychological conviction that life will be better at the destination is a powerful pull factor, reinforced by images in the media, and especially by optimistic letters home from successful immigrants and cash remittances. The most important attractions are good jobs,  (especially in the 19th century) land for farming, and a sense that the new land offers more freedom and opportunity.

Pull factors are attractions that exist in the destination, especially freedom to achieve and prosper.  The psychological conviction that life will be better at the destination is a powerful pull factor, reinforced by images in the media, and especially by optimistic letters home from successful immigrants and cash remittances. The most important attractions are good jobs,  (especially in the 19th century) land for farming, and a sense that the new land offers more freedom and opportunity.

The decision can be analyzed though a cost-benefit analysis of the push and pull factors. If a person judges the pull and push factors outweigh the cost or disadvantages of moving the that person is likely to move.  If the costs outweigh the pull and push factors, the person is not likely to move.  Furthermore it takes time to move; many people stay around to build up cash reserves or gain educational credentials. However, even when someone decides to move intervening obstacles play a role. Long distances, the expense of moving, poor health, fears about the drastic changes in a far-off land, and family obligations may induce a person who wants to move to stay home.

The decision can be analyzed though a cost-benefit analysis of the push and pull factors. If a person judges the pull and push factors outweigh the cost or disadvantages of moving the that person is likely to move.  If the costs outweigh the pull and push factors, the person is not likely to move.  Furthermore, it takes time to move; many people stay around to build up cash reserves or gain educational credentials. However, even when someone decides to move intervening obstacles play a role. Long distances, the expense of moving, poor health, fears about the drastic changes in a far-off land, and family obligations may induce a person who wants to move to stay home.

===Selectivity===

===Selectivity===

The people most likely to migrate are young adults, especially young men.  People with more assets (such as cash or education or adventurous personality) would be more likely to leave.  Looked at the other way, people who want to leave for one reason or another will try to save money, get more skills or schooling, and avoid long-term commitments.  In practice, most migration is “chained.”  People follow a chain of kinfolk who have already settled in a new area, and who provide information, money and encouragement for others to follow. (Of course, they can also warn that conditions are poor, and don’t come right now.)

The people most likely to migrate are young adults, especially young men.  People with more assets (such as cash or education or adventurous personality) would be more likely to leave.  Looked at the other way, people who want to leave for one reason or another will try to save money, get more skills or schooling, and avoid long-term commitments.  In practice, most migration is “chained.”  People follow a chain of kinfolk who have already settled in a new area, and who provide information, money and encouragement for others to follow. (Of course, they can also warn that conditions are poor, and don't come right now.)

A person has to be old enough to be independent of the family to make the decision to migrate. A century ago people aged 15 to 20 were full time workers and could make independent decisions themselves. Today, academic credentials are much more important, and migration decisions usually come after people finish high school or college. Today in the US, migration peaks for young adults in their twenties. By the late thirties they have usually settled down, geographically.

A person has to be old enough to be independent of the family to make the decision to migrate. A century ago people aged 15 to 20 were full-time workers and could make independent decisions themselves. Today, academic credentials are much more important, and migration decisions usually come after people finish high school or college. Today in the US, migration peaks for young adults in their twenties. By the late thirties they have usually settled down, geographically.

Divorce and separation are events that stimulate the sense it's time to move on. For married couples, additional children produce rootedness; the fewer the number of children in school the easier it is to migrate. If both spouses are working, migration rates are lower because it's harder to find two equally good jobs. The phenomenon of a couple migrating because the wife has a good job offer, with the husband training along, is becoming more common, but the usual pattern is that the husband's job is paramount. On the other hand, large corporations that want to move their executives around the country or around the world are discovering that they must help find employment opportunities for the spouse, and also guarantee high quality living conditions and good schools.

Divorce and separation are events that stimulate the sense it's time to move on. For married couples, additional children produce rootedness; the fewer the number of children in school the easier it is to migrate. If both spouses are working, migration rates are lower because it's harder to find two equally good jobs. The phenomenon of a couple migrating because the wife has a good job offer, with the husband training along, is becoming more common, but the usual pattern is that the husband's job is paramount. On the other hand, large corporations that want to move their executives around the country or around the world are discovering that they must help find employment opportunities for the spouse, and also guarantee high quality living conditions and good schools.

Many countries relax their usual immigration restrictions in order to admit political refugees—perhaps this is the “huddled masses” reference in a poem on the Statue of Liberty. The US admitted 1.4 million, including 580,000 from Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, and 413,000 from the former USSR. From 30,000 to 40,000 each came from Iran, Romania, Poland, Bosnia, Ethiopia, and Afghanistan

Many countries relax their usual immigration restrictions in order to admit political refugees—perhaps this is the “huddled masses” reference in a poem on the Statue of Liberty. The US admitted 1.4 million, including 580,000 from Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, and 413,000 from the former USSR. From 30,000 to 40,000 each came from Iran, Romania, Poland, Bosnia, Ethiopia, and Afghanistan

The chief sending and receiving countries change every decade, though the USA is usually the largest recipient. By 2000 the largest donor countries were China, Mexico and India.  

The chief sending and receiving countries change every decade, though the USA is usually the largest recipient. By 2000 the largest donor countries were China, Mexico and India.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

===Impact===

===Impact===

The impact of immigration on the donor countries is modest.  Things don’t happen; emigration reduces the available workforce, and thereby tends to raise wages. The '''Brain Drain''' effect, however, keeps the level of technology and complexity lower than it would otherwise have been. Remittances from the emigrants can be a major factor in very poor countries, such as Haiti. Mexico receives over $2 billion a year from emigrants. This money is mostly spent on consumer goods; it has a "multiplier" effect that makes the whole community better off, not just the relatives who receive the money.  

The impact of immigration on the donor countries is modest.  Things don't happen; emigration reduces the available workforce, and thereby tends to raise wages. The '''Brain Drain''' effect, however, keeps the level of technology and complexity lower than it would otherwise have been. Remittances from the emigrants can be a major factor in very poor countries, such as Haiti. Mexico receives over $2 billion a year from emigrants. This money is mostly spent on consumer goods; it has a "multiplier" effect that makes the whole community better off, not just the relatives who receive the money.  

The largest host destinations in 2000 were: USA, Germany, and Canada.

The largest host destinations in 2000 were: USA, Germany, and Canada.

===Asians===

===Asians===

Asian immigration to USA came in three phases. From 1850-1880 about 165,000 Chinese arrived, brought in to build railroads; most returned to China, and because few Chinese women arrived, the numbers of Chinese-Americans shrank. In 1900-10, Japanese farm workers arrived in California and Hawaii.  Public opinion in the West was quite hostile to the Chinese and Japanese, and numerous laws were passed that tried to stop or slow the inflow. After 1965 racial quotas were ended, and large numbers of Asians began arriving.  They included Chinese from the Chinese Diaspora, Koreans, Filipinos, Vietnamese, and Indians, as well as smaller numbers from other lands. The majority settle in California.  

Asian immigration to USA came in three phases. From 1850-1880 about 165,000 Chinese arrived, brought in to build railroads; most returned to China, and because few Chinese women arrived, the numbers of Chinese-Americans shrank. In 1900-10, Japanese farm workers arrived in California and Hawaii.  Public opinion in the West was quite hostile to the Chinese and Japanese, and numerous laws were passed that tried to stop or slow the inflow. After 1965 racial quotas were ended, and large numbers of Asians began arriving.  They included Chinese from the Chinese Diaspora, Koreans, Filipinos, Vietnamese, and Indians, as well as smaller numbers from other lands. The majority settle in California.  

==Migration transition==

==Migration transition==

A country that undergoes the “migration transition” switches from being a labor exporter to labor importer: Push becomes Pull  

A country that undergoes the “migration transition” switches from being a labor exporter to labor importer: Push becomes Pull  

Millions of Germans emigrated (especially to the US) in the 19th century. It became an importer after World War Two, and again after the Cold War ended in 1989, of millions of German political refugees from Eastern Europe. As the West German economy boomed, it brought in some 19 million Turkish, Slavic and Italian guest workers ("Gastarbeiter"). Five million of these "guests" brought their families and stayed permanently, but they are not accorded full citizenship status.  

Millions of Germans emigrated (especially to the US) in the 19th century. It became an importer after World War Two, and again after the Cold War ended in 1989, of millions of German political refugees from Eastern Europe. As the West German economy boomed, it brought in some 19 million Turkish, Slavic and Italian guest workers ("Gastarbeiter"). Five million of these "guests" brought their families and stayed permanently, but they are not accorded full citizenship status.  

Puerto Rico, became part of the USA in 1898, and the residents gained full citizenship status in 1917. Millions emigrated from the poor island to the much richer mainland, especially New York City and environs. Recently, immigrants from Cuba and the Dominican Republic migrated to Puerto Rico, attracted by higher wages and the island’s Spanish language and culture.

Puerto Rico, became part of the USA in 1898, and the residents gained full citizenship status in 1917. Millions emigrated from the poor island to the much richer mainland, especially New York City and environs. Recently, immigrants from Cuba and the Dominican Republic migrated to Puerto Rico, attracted by higher wages and the island's Spanish language and culture.

The USA has primarily been a destination for immigrants. Most of the emigration out of the USA has been of immigrants who stayed for a while then returned home.  However, there has been a small flow to Canada.

The USA has primarily been a destination for immigrants. Most of the emigration out of the USA has been of immigrants who stayed for a while then returned home.  However, there has been a small flow to Canada.

==Internal Migration==

==Internal Migration==

The classical internal migration pattern is from poor to better-off areas. In Italy the main movement is from the south to the north; in Britain, from Scotland and the now-depressed cities of early industrialization to London and the south of England; in Brazil, from the northeast to the south and especially to Sao Paulo.  

The classical internal migration pattern is from poor to better-off areas. In Italy the main movement is from the south to the north; in Britain, from Scotland and the now-depressed cities of early industrialization to London and the south of England; in Brazil, from the northeast to the south and especially to São Paulo.  

In recent decades, there has been heavy migration from rural areas to very large cities in developing countries.  

In recent decades, there has been heavy migration from rural areas to very large cities in developing countries.  

== Urbanization==

== Urbanization==

Urbanization is the process of population shifting from the countryside to cities. "Urban" is a confusing word with many connotations. To census officials it means a location with more than 2,500 people. To most people "urban" conjures up New York or Phoenix, rather than a small crossroads village. The sense of urban as "urbane" indicates sophistication and culture. On the other hand, "urban problems" connotes poverty, crime, homelessness and decay. Using the old definition of urban = 2500 population, the USA became 50% urban for the first time in 1920. Everything that is not "urban" by the old definition was "rural." Rural encompassed farmers, and also small towns and villages. Dramatic improvements in agricultural productivity have sharply reduced the number of farmers needed; in 1900, 42 percent of Americans were farmers; today the figure is under 2 percent, and many people who live on farms have non-farm jobs as well--they commute to work by auto, of course.)

Urbanization is the process of population shifting from the countryside to cities. "Urban" is a confusing word with many connotations. To census officials it means a location with more than 2,500 people. To most people "urban" conjures up New York or Phoenix, rather than a small crossroads village. The sense of urban as "urbane" indicates sophistication and culture. On the other hand, "urban problems" connotes poverty, crime, homelessness and decay. Using the old definition of urban = 2500 population, the USA became 50% urban for the first time in 1920. Everything that is not "urban" by the old definition was "rural." Rural encompassed farmers, and also small towns and villages. Dramatic improvements in agricultural productivity have sharply reduced the number of farmers needed; in 1900, 42 percent of Americans were farmers; today the figure is under 2 percent, and many people who live on farms have non-farm jobs as well—they commute to work by auto, of course.  

More recently the US Census Bureau has focused on "metropolitan areas" which comprise the center city and its suburbs. Basically the idea is to define an economic unit, with the boundaries determined by commuting patterns. In 1990, half (49%) of the American population lived in 30 metropolitan areas, headed by the New York, Los Angeles and Chicago areas.  In 1990, New York metropolitan area encompassed about 20 million people living in four states, while 15 million lived in the Los Angeles area.  

More recently the US Census Bureau has focused on "metropolitan areas" which comprise the center city and its suburbs. Basically the idea is to define an economic unit, with the boundaries determined by commuting patterns. In 1990, half (49%) of the American population lived in 30 metropolitan areas, headed by the New York, Los Angeles and Chicago areas.  In 1990, New York metropolitan area encompassed about 20 million people living in four states, while 15 million lived in the Los Angeles area.  

Historically, cities could barely reproduce themselves. In the early stages of growth they had very high mortality rates, but that problem was largely solved by public health measures. Thus in the early 20th century US cities obtained poor food, water and milk, and built good waste disposal systems. The birth rates in cities have always been lower than in rural areas (on the farm, an extra hand soon pays for itself, but not in the it just means overcrowding and more bills.)  

Historically, cities could barely reproduce themselves. In the early stages of growth they had very high mortality rates, but that problem was largely solved by public health measures. Thus in the early 20th century US cities obtained poor food, water and milk, and built good waste disposal systems. The birth rates in cities have always been lower than in rural areas (on the farm, an extra hand soon pays for itself, but not in the it just means overcrowding and more bills.)  

The great majority of Europeans--more than three in five--now live in cities. The ratio is highest in the richest, most industrial countries: more than 90 percent in the United Kingdom and Belgium, almost 90 percent in The Netherlands, and more than 80 percent in Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. Only poor, rural Portugal and Albania are less than half urban.  

The great majority of Europeans—more than three in five—now live in cities. The ratio is highest in the richest, most industrial countries: more than 90 percent in the United Kingdom and Belgium, almost 90 percent in The Netherlands, and more than 80 percent in Germany, Denmark, and Sweden. Only poor, rural Portugal and Albania are less than half urban.  

In recent decades cities in less developed countries have grown enormously. Most of the new urbanites live in impoverished slums.  

In recent decades cities in less developed countries have grown enormously. Most of the new urbanites live in impoverished slums.  

==See also==

==See also==

* [[American Jews]]

* [[American Redoubt]] [[Conservative]]-[[Libertarian]] [[Political]] "[[Vote with your feet]]" [[Strategic relocation]] Migration Movement to [[Essay:Free States Movement|Free States]]

* [[:Category:American Jews|Jewish Americans]]

* [[Animal migration]]

* [[Frontier Thesis]]

* [[Frontier Thesis]]

* [[German Americans]]

* [[German Americans]]

* [[Polish Americans]]

* [[Polish Americans]]

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Yaukey, David and Douglas L. Anderton. ''Demography: The Study of Human Population.'' (2nd ed. 2001). Chapter 5

* Yaukey, David and Douglas L. Anderton. ''Demography: The Study of Human Population.'' (2nd ed. 2001). Chapter 5

===Recent migrations===

===Recent migrations===

* Adler, Leonore Loeb , and Uwe P.Gielen, eds. ''Migration: Immigration and Emigration in International Perspective.'' 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106964953&oplinknum=16# online edition]

* Adler, Leonore Loeb, and Uwe P.Gielen, eds. ''Migration: Immigration and Emigration in International Perspective.'' 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106964953&oplinknum=16# online edition]

* Borjas, George J. "Does Immigration Grease the Wheels of the Labor Market?" ''Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2001'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001037127 online edition]  

* Borjas, George J. "Does Immigration Grease the Wheels of the Labor Market?" ''Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2001'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001037127 online edition]  

*  Castles, Stephen, and Mark J. Miller. ''The Age of Migration, Third Edition: International Population Movements in the Modern World'' (2003)  

*  Castles, Stephen, and Mark J. Miller. ''The Age of Migration, Third Edition: International Population Movements in the Modern World'' (2003)  

* Bankston, Carl L. III and Danielle Antoinette Hidalgo, eds. ''Immigration in U.S. History'' Salem Press, (2006)

* Bankston, Carl L. III and Danielle Antoinette Hidalgo, eds. ''Immigration in U.S. History'' Salem Press, (2006)

* Bodnar, John. ''The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America''  (1985)

* Bodnar, John. ''The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America''  (1985)

* Canada, ''Report of the Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration.'' (1885) primary documents for Canada (with reports on Chinatowns in U.S.) [http://books.google.com/books?id=w3gkAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA288&dq=inauthor:Immigration+inauthor:Commission&num=30#PPA7,M1 online edition]  

* Canada, ''Report of the Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration.'' (1885) primary documents for Canada (with reports on Chinatowns in U.S.) [https://books.google.com/books?id=w3gkAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA288&dq=inauthor:Immigration+inauthor:Commission&num=30#PPA7,M1 online edition]  

* Daniels, Roger.  ''Coming to America'' 2nd ed. (2005)

* Daniels, Roger.  ''Coming to America'' 2nd ed. (2005)

* Daniels, Roger.  ''Guarding the Golden Door : American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882'' (2005)

* Daniels, Roger.  ''Guarding the Golden Door : American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882'' (2005)

* Green, Alan G.  and Gree David. "The Goals of Canada's Immigration Policy: A Historical Perspective" ''Canadian Journal of Urban Research,'' Vol. 13, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5006533123 online version]

* Green, Alan G.  and Gree David. "The Goals of Canada's Immigration Policy: A Historical Perspective" ''Canadian Journal of Urban Research,'' Vol. 13, 2004 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5006533123 online version]

*  Hoerder, Dirk  and Horst Rössler, eds. ''Distant Magnets: Expectations and Realities in the Immigrant Experience, 1840-1930'' 1993 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78762133 online edition] 312pp

*  Hoerder, Dirk  and Horst Rössler, eds. ''Distant Magnets: Expectations and Realities in the Immigrant Experience, 1840-1930'' 1993 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78762133 online edition] 312pp

* Hourwich, Isaac. ''Immigration and Labor: The Economic Aspects of European Immigration to the United States'' (1912) [http://books.google.com/books/pdf/Immigration_and_Labor.pdf?vid=OCLC00593905&id=PLQJAAAAIAAJ&output=pdf&sig=ieLK3Ab3sc9gGdFaxXxOKQle3B8  full text online], argues immigrants were beneficial to natives by pushing them upward

* Hourwich, Isaac. ''Immigration and Labor: The Economic Aspects of European Immigration to the United States'' (1912) [https://books.google.com/books/pdf/Immigration_and_Labor.pdf?vid=OCLC00593905&id=PLQJAAAAIAAJ&output=pdf&sig=ieLK3Ab3sc9gGdFaxXxOKQle3B8  full text online], argues immigrants were beneficial to natives by pushing them upward

* Jenks, Jeremiah W.  and W. Jett Lauck, ''The Immigrant Problem'' (1912; 6th ed. 1926) [http://books.google.com/books?id=XbCHyzEa_O8C&pg=PR3&dq=inauthor:Jenks+inauthor:Lauck&num=30 online edition of Jenkc and Lauck]  based on 1911 Immigration Commission report, with additional data

* Jenks, Jeremiah W.  and W. Jett Lauck, ''The Immigrant Problem'' (1912; 6th ed. 1926) [https://books.google.com/books?id=XbCHyzEa_O8C&pg=PR3&dq=inauthor:Jenks+inauthor:Lauck&num=30 online edition of Jenkc and Lauck]  based on 1911 Immigration Commission report, with additional data

* Joseph, Samuel; ''Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910'' (1914) [http://books.google.com/books?id=CmVDAAAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:Jewish+intitle:Immigration+intitle:to+intitle:the+intitle:United+intitle:States+intitle:from&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]

* Joseph, Samuel; ''Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910'' (1914) [https://books.google.com/books?id=CmVDAAAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:Jewish+intitle:Immigration+intitle:to+intitle:the+intitle:United+intitle:States+intitle:from&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]

* Kulikoff, Allan; ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (2000), details on colonial immigration

* Kulikoff, Allan; ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (2000), details on colonial immigration

* LeMay, Michael, and Elliott Robert Barkan. ''U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues: A Documentary History'' (1999) 340 pgs. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6846180&oplinknum=2 online edition]

* LeMay, Michael, and Elliott Robert Barkan. ''U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Laws and Issues: A Documentary History'' (1999) 340 pgs. [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6846180&oplinknum=2 online edition]

* Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups; Thernstrom is a leading conservative historian

* Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups; Thernstrom is a leading conservative historian

* U.S. Immigration Commission, ''Abstracts of Reports,'' 2 vols. (1911); the full 42-volume report is summarized (with additional information) in vol 1-2; see also Jencks and Lauck

* U.S. Immigration Commission, ''Abstracts of Reports,'' 2 vols. (1911); the full 42-volume report is summarized (with additional information) in vol 1-2; see also Jencks and Lauck

** ''Reports of the Immigration Commission: Statements'' (1911) text of statements pro and con  [http://books.google.com/books?id=DSISAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=inauthor:Immigration+inauthor:Commission&num=30 online edition]  

** ''Reports of the Immigration Commission: Statements'' (1911) text of statements pro and con  [https://books.google.com/books?id=DSISAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=inauthor:Immigration+inauthor:Commission&num=30 online edition]  

** ''Part 8: Leather Industry'' (1911) [http://books.google.com/books?id=ao0SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:Immigration+inauthor:Commission&num=30#PPP7,M1 online edition]

** ''Part 8: Leather Industry'' (1911) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ao0SAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=inauthor:Immigration+inauthor:Commission&num=30#PPP7,M1 online edition]

* Wittke, Carl. ''We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant'' (1939), covers all major groups [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10024497 online edition]

* Wittke, Carl. ''We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant'' (1939), covers all major groups [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10024497 online edition]

* Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. ''Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics'' Oxford University Press. (1990)

* Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. ''Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics'' Oxford University Press. (1990)

* http://www.ice.gov for U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) of the DHS

* http://www.ice.gov for U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) of the DHS

*[http://www.collectionscanada.ca/immigrants/ Moving Here, Staying Here: The Canadian Immigrant Experience] - "Immigration," ''Annual Report of the Minister of the Province of Canada for the Year 1865'' at Library and Archives Canada

*[http://www.collectionscanada.ca/immigrants/ Moving Here, Staying Here: The Canadian Immigrant Experience] - "Immigration," ''Annual Report of the Minister of the Province of Canada for the Year 1865'' at Library and Archives Canada

[[category:Demography]]

[[Category:Demography]]

[[Category:Strategic Relocation]]