Changes

In Greece itself a national program of Olympic Games, funded by Evangelos Zappas (1800-65), took place four times between 1859 and 1889, with limited success. The idea of a revival of the ancient games became popular in Europe thanks to Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), the father of the modern Olympic movement.

In Greece itself a national program of Olympic Games, funded by Evangelos Zappas (1800-65), took place four times between 1859 and 1889, with limited success. The idea of a revival of the ancient games became popular in Europe thanks to Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), the father of the modern Olympic movement.

Two events in 1889 moved de Coubertin: the International Exposition in Paris and his visit to North America. The Exposition demonstrated the power of a truly international spectacle; the latter revealed the widespread growth of interest in a variety of sports, from rowing and yachting to football and track and field. In addition, recent archaeological discoveries by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] and others, and a growing fascination with Olympia and Greece in general, pushed his ambitious project forward.   Coubertin used a copy of the founding compromise (1880) of the Amateur Athletic Association, the British sports governing body for track and field, to bring together a diversity of different interests in relation to the games.  

Two events in 1889 moved de Coubertin: the International Exposition in Paris and his visit to North America. The Exposition demonstrated the power of a truly international spectacle; the latter revealed the widespread growth of interest in a variety of sports, from rowing and yachting to football and track and field. In addition, recent archaeological discoveries by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] and others, and a growing fascination with Olympia and Greece in general, pushed his ambitious project forward. Coubertin used a copy of the founding compromise (1880) of the Amateur Athletic Association, the British sports governing body for track and field, to bring together a diversity of different interests in relation to the games.  

In 1896 the first of the modern Olympic Games was staged in Athens. Although a passionate French patriot, Coubertin was also a sincere and committed internationalist who envisaged the advent of a new era of progress and universal harmony in an interdependent and even eventually unified world that would nevertheless preserve its cultural diversity and heritage. An admirer of the model of the Swiss Confederation, he was active in a variety of fields, promoting his ideas through the creation of networks. Growing nationalism in Europe and especially the outbreak of World War I highlighted the limits of his vision and placed him in a major dilemma, but he continued to prioritize the promotion of his Olympic ideal.  

In 1896 the first of the modern Olympic Games was staged in Athens. Although a passionate French patriot, Coubertin was also a sincere and committed internationalist who envisaged the advent of a new era of progress and universal harmony in an interdependent and even eventually unified world that would nevertheless preserve its cultural diversity and heritage. An admirer of the model of the Swiss Confederation, he was active in a variety of fields, promoting his ideas through the creation of networks. Growing nationalism in Europe and especially the outbreak of World War I highlighted the limits of his vision and placed him in a major dilemma, but he continued to prioritize the promotion of his Olympic ideal.  

==Past games==

==Past games==

===1896 Athens===

===1896 Athens===

With the Greek king presiding, the opening ceremonies attracted large crowds. American athletes dominated many of the track and field events, but the emotional climax of the games was the unexpected victory of Spiridon Loues, a Greek, in the marathon. He instantly became a national hero. Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937) who created the Olympic Games, remained in the background but after the games he had to battle against Greek efforts to establish the Olympics permanently in Greece.

With the Greek king presiding, the opening ceremonies attracted large crowds. American athletes dominated many of the track and field events, but the emotional climax of the games was the unexpected victory of Spiridon Loues, a Greek, in the marathon. He instantly became a national hero. Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937) who created the Olympic Games, remained in the background but after the games he had to battle against Greek efforts to establish the Olympics permanently in Greece.

===1904 St. Louis===

===1904 St. Louis===

* Matthews, George R. ''America's First Olympics: The St. Louis Games of 1904'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=J5hTmJ0y3KKrvyh1qLtX0zZQnrWlRxpyGD92nhgzJDTGpf3vKyJy!6927067?a=o&d=111476414 online edition]

* Matthews, George R. ''America's First Olympics: The St. Louis Games of 1904'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=J5hTmJ0y3KKrvyh1qLtX0zZQnrWlRxpyGD92nhgzJDTGpf3vKyJy!6927067?a=o&d=111476414 online edition]

===1906 Athens===

===1906 Athens===

In spring 1906 the Olympic Games took place in Athens; Coubertin had repeatedly announced them in the 'Revue Olympique' and later described them as 'brilliantly carried out.' For the first time, the nations marched into the stadium, athletes were chosen and sent by their national Olympic Committees, and gold, silver, and bronze medals were awarded at the winners' ceremony. The planned games for 1910 and 1914 were prepared but not implemented due to wars in the Balkans. By 1912 the 1906 Games had suffered a loss of status and have since been referred to as 'interim games.'

In spring 1906 the Olympic Games took place in Athens; Coubertin had repeatedly announced them in the 'Revue Olympique' and later described them as 'brilliantly carried out.' For the first time, the nations marched into the stadium, athletes were chosen and sent by their national Olympic Committees, and gold, silver, and bronze medals were awarded at the winners' ceremony. The planned games for 1910 and 1914 were prepared but not implemented due to wars in the Balkans. By 1912 the 1906 Games had suffered a loss of status and have since been referred to as 'interim games.'

===1924 Paris===

===1924 Paris===

Italian fencer Oreste Puliti (1891-1958) was at the center of controversy during the 1924 Paris Olympic Games. Disqualified by a Hungarian judge from the individual saber event, Puliti and the Italian team appealed to a 'jury d'honneur,' which upheld the judge's decision. The entire incident, including a later saber duel on the Hungarian border between Puliti and the judge, reflects issues of national pride, conflicts between European schools of fencing, and the difficulties the International Olympic Committee (IOC) had dealing with sport-based international federations.<ref>Thierry Terret, et al., "The Puliti Affair and the 1924 Paris Olympics: Geo-political Issues, National Pride and Fencing Traditions," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2007 24(10): 1281-1301  </ref>  

Italian fencer Oreste Puliti (1891-1958) was at the center of controversy during the 1924 Paris Olympic Games. Disqualified by a Hungarian judge from the individual saber event, Puliti and the Italian team appealed to a 'jury d'honneur,' which upheld the judge's decision. The entire incident, including a later saber duel on the Hungarian border between Puliti and the judge, reflects issues of national pride, conflicts between European schools of fencing, and the difficulties the International Olympic Committee (IOC) had dealing with sport-based international federations.<ref>Thierry Terret, et al., "The Puliti Affair and the 1924 Paris Olympics: Geo-political Issues, National Pride and Fencing Traditions," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2007 24(10): 1281-1301  </ref>  

===1932 Los Angeles===

===1932 Los Angeles===

===1936 Berlin===

===1936 Berlin===

The Berlin games were the most controversial (before 1980) because the IOC was determined to promote its brand of internationalism in the face of Nazi mistreatment of Jews and political opponents.<ref> Christopher Hilton, ''Hitler's Olympics: The 1936 Berlin Olympic Games'' (2005) 244pp.; Arnd Kruger and William Murray, eds. ''The Nazi Olympics. Sport, Politics and Appeasement in the 1930s,'' (2003) 260pp.</ref>  

The Berlin games were the most controversial (before 1980) because the IOC was determined to promote its brand of internationalism in the face of Nazi mistreatment of Jews and political opponents.<ref> Christopher Hilton, ''Hitler's Olympics: The 1936 Berlin Olympic Games'' (2005) 244pp.; Arnd Kruger and William Murray, eds. ''The Nazi Olympics. Sport, Politics and Appeasement in the 1930s,'' (2003) 260pp.</ref>  

===1940 Tokyo===

===1940 Tokyo===

The games were cancelled in 1938 when international tensions leading to [[World War II]] got out of hand.  There never was a plan for a 1944 Olympics.

The games were canceled in 1938 when international tensions leading to [[World War II]] got out of hand.  There never was a plan for a 1944 Olympics.

===1948 London===

===1948 London===

Despite some fears that Britain was too impoverished by World War II to host an international event, the Labour government, led by the efforts of Philip Noel-Baker (1889-1982), proceeded to relaunch the games following a 12-year hiatus. The goal was to tell the world that Britain was back.  The press and the public generally saw the project as a success, one that reasserted Britain's international importance. The memory of the war meant that Germany and Japan were excluded. The emerging [[Cold War]] meant that the Soviet Union did not come.<ref> Peter Beck, "The British Government and the Olympic Movement: The 1948 London Olympics," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2008 25(5): 615-647 </ref>  

Despite some fears that Britain was too impoverished by World War II to host an international event, the Labor government, led by the efforts of Philip Noel-Baker (1889-1982), proceeded to relaunch the games following a 12-year hiatus. The goal was to tell the world that Britain was back.  The press and the public generally saw the project as a success, one that reasserted Britain's international importance. The memory of the war meant that Germany and Japan were excluded. The emerging [[Cold War]] meant that the Soviet Union did not come.<ref> Peter Beck, "The British Government and the Olympic Movement: The 1948 London Olympics," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2008 25(5): 615-647 </ref>  

 

===1956 Melboune===

===1956 Melboune===

Modernity clashed with traditionalism when Melbourne, [[History of Australia]], became host of the 1956 summer Olympics. Journalists speculated that the expected floods of American tourists, accustomed to central heating and prompt room service, would react coldly to the traditional Aussie hotel routine of getting out of bed on to the chilly linoleum, and tip-toeing across the floor to the old-time wash basin and jug. What would sophisticated Frenchmen make of a city where all bars closed at 6 PM?  Melbourne, the sophisticates feared, would be regarded as a hick town, too provincial and too staid to be entrusted with the hosting of a world event.  A small but vocal minority of Labor politicians and welfare workers opposed the Games as an unjustifiable extravagance; in rural Victoria the folk saw the event as yet another treat for city people.  Traditional clergymen feared the approach of that iniquitous institution, the 'Continental Sunday'. However the Chamber of Commerce won the day, hailing the Olympics as a boost to tourism and investment.  Modernist architects and designers embraced the Games as their chance to bring local taste before the bar of international opinion.  The Olympic Pool, for example, won praise for its high originality and imagination.  The hotels were modernized, upper middle class residents took in vistors, and even the Japanese--the hated foes of the 1940s, were made welcome.  In the event the preparations transformed and upgraded Melbourne's self-image as a bastion of modernity, and the rest of the world paid little attention.<ref> Graeme Davison, "Welcoming the World: The 1956 Olympic Games and the Re-Presentation of Melbourne," ''Australian Historical Studies'' 1997 28(109): 64-76 in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

Modernity clashed with traditionalism when Melbourne, [[History of Australia]], became host of the 1956 summer Olympics. Journalists speculated that the expected floods of American tourists, accustomed to central heating and prompt room service, would react coldly to the traditional Aussie hotel routine of getting out of bed on to the chilly linoleum, and tip-toeing across the floor to the old-time wash basin and jug. What would sophisticated Frenchmen make of a city where all bars closed at 6 PM?  Melbourne, the sophisticates feared, would be regarded as a hick town, too provincial and too staid to be entrusted with the hosting of a world event.  A small but vocal minority of Labor politicians and welfare workers opposed the Games as an unjustifiable extravagance; in rural Victoria the folk saw the event as yet another treat for city people.  Traditional clergymen feared the approach of that iniquitous institution, the 'Continental Sunday'. However the Chamber of Commerce won the day, hailing the Olympics as a boost to tourism and investment.  Modernist architects and designers embraced the Games as their chance to bring local taste before the bar of international opinion.  The Olympic Pool, for example, won praise for its high originality and imagination.  The hotels were modernized, upper middle class residents took in visitors, and even the Japanese--the hated foes of the 1940s, were made welcome.  In the event the preparations transformed and upgraded Melbourne's self-image as a bastion of modernity, and the rest of the world paid little attention.<ref> Graeme Davison, "Welcoming the World: The 1956 Olympic Games and the Re-Presentation of Melbourne," ''Australian Historical Studies'' 1997 28(109): 64-76 in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

 

===1960 Rome===

===1960 Rome===

See David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'' (2007)

See David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'' (2007)

===1964 Tokyo===

===1964 Tokyo===

The games demarcated the end of Japan's wounded psyche from World War II. Attendence by its former enemies meant that all was  forgotten, if not forgiven.

The games demarcated the end of Japan's wounded psyche from World War II. Attendence by its former enemies meant that all was  forgotten, if not forgiven.

===1968 Mexico ===

===1968 Mexico ===

===1972 Munich===  

===1972 Munich===  

West Germany sponsored the 1972 Olympics as an affirmation of its peaceful reintegration into the family of nations. The world community was horrified when Palestinian terrorists captured and murdered a team of Israeli athletes on worldwide televsion.

West Germany sponsored the 1972 Olympics as an affirmation of its peaceful reintegration into the family of nations. The world community was horrified when Palestinian terrorists captured and murdered a team of Israeli athletes on worldwide televsion.

===2000 Sydney===

===2000 Sydney===

The Melbourne Olympic Games in 1956 were well handled, but few international tourists came to Australia for it. By contrast when Sydney, Australia, hosted the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, it gained global attention for an efficiently organized world-class event. The Queen opened the 1956 games but was not invited in 2000, as the spirit of republicanism was too strong. However, many of the hoped-for legacies failed to materialize. General levels of participation in physical activity and sport did not rise, although passive spectatorship including television watching did. Many of the costly Australian facilities built for the games remain underutilized in their wake. While in the short term, some of the economic and political goals were achieved, and a new and better method to collect and disseminate knowledge about games preparation was established, such events remain problematic in their long-term effects on local, populations, societies, and environments.<ref>Kristine Toohey, "The Sydney Olympics: Striving for Legacies - Overcoming Short-Term Disappointments and Long-Term Deficiencies." ''International Journal of the History of Sport 2008 25(14): 1953-1971; Helen Jefferson Lenskyj, "Sydney 2000, Olympic Sport and the Australian Media, "''Journal of Australian Studies'' (1999) pp 76+ [http://www.questia.com/read/5001885655?title=Sydney%202000%2c%20Olympic%20Sport%20and%20the%20Australian%20Media online at Questia] </ref>

The Melbourne Olympic Games in 1956 were well handled, but few international tourists came to Australia for it. By contrast when Sydney, Australia, hosted the 2000 Summer Olympic Games, it gained global attention for an efficiently organized world-class event. The Queen opened the 1956 games but was not invited in 2000, as the spirit of republicanism was too strong. However, many of the hoped-for legacies failed to materialize. General levels of participation in physical activity and sport did not rise, although passive spectator ship including television watching did. Many of the costly Australian facilities built for the games remain underutilized in their wake. While in the short term, some of the economic and political goals were achieved, and a new and better method to collect and disseminate knowledge about games preparation was established, such events remain problematic in their long-term effects on local, populations, societies, and environments.<ref>Kristine Toohey, "The Sydney Olympics: Striving for Legacies - Overcoming Short-Term Disappointments and Long-Term Deficiencies." ''International Journal of the History of Sport 2008 25(14): 1953-1971; Helen Jefferson Lenskyj, "Sydney 2000, Olympic Sport and the Australian Media, "''Journal of Australian Studies'' (1999) pp 76+ [http://www.questia.com/read/5001885655?title=Sydney%202000%2c%20Olympic%20Sport%20and%20the%20Australian%20Media online at Questia] </ref>

===2008 Beijing===

===2008 Beijing===

The host city for the Games of the XXX Olympiad in 2012 will be [[London]], followed by [[Rio de Janeiro]] in 2016.

The host city for the Games of the XXX Olympiad in 2012 will be [[London]], followed by [[Rio de Janeiro]] in 2016.

The next Winter Olympics will be in Vancouver, british Columbia, Canada, Feb 12-28, 2010.<ref> see [http://www.vancouver2010.com/ Official 2010 site]</ref>

The next Winter Olympics will be in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Feb 12-28, 2010.<ref> see [http://www.vancouver2010.com/ Official 2010 site]</ref>

==Impact==

==Impact==

[[File:Guttmann.jpg|thumb|190px]]

[[File:Guttmann.jpg|thumb|190px]]

The impact of the Olympics as setting a world standard spread to the underdeveloped world.  The Committee for International Olympic Aid was founded by the developed nations in 1961 to help fund Third World countries so they could join the Olympic family. The National Olympic Committees of these new countries gained some measure of control over the development of sport on the international level and, in conjunction with individual international sports federations, shifted the overall balance of power within the International Olympic Committee (IOC).<ref> Ian Henry and Mansour Al-tauqi, "The Development of Olympic Solildarity: West and Non-west (Core and Periphery) Relations in the Olympic World," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2008 25(3): 355-369 </ref>  

The impact of the Olympics as setting a world standard spread to the underdeveloped world.  The Committee for International Olympic Aid was founded by the developed nations in 1961 to help fund Third World countries so they could join the Olympic family. The National Olympic Committees of these new countries gained some measure of control over the development of sport on the international level and, in conjunction with individual international sports federations, shifted the overall balance of power within the International Olympic Committee (IOC).<ref> Ian Henry and Mansour Al-tauqi, "The Development of Olympic Solidarity: West and Non-west (Core and Periphery) Relations in the Olympic World," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2008 25(3): 355-369 </ref>  

===Egypt===

===Egypt===