Changes

There also were renewed purges in the inner party ranks in 1937 to 1939. Uncooperative political leaders were accused of aiding the Japanese. One after the other, many top party and government officials fell from power and were executed or were imprisoned.

There also were renewed purges in the inner party ranks in 1937 to 1939. Uncooperative political leaders were accused of aiding the Japanese. One after the other, many top party and government officials fell from power and were executed or were imprisoned.

===Khalkhin Gol===

===Soviets vs Japan===

[[Image:Nomonhan.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Japan and the Soviet Union clashes at Nomonhan and Changkufeng 1938-39.]]

[[Image:Nomonhan.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Japan and the Soviet Union clashes at Nomonhan and Changkufeng 1938-39.]]

In 1938, Soviet and Japanese fought many skirmishes across the common border their troops occupied along the Manchurian and Mongolian frontiers. Skirmishes, beginning in 1939, gradually grew into open warfare by May 1939 with Japanese forces based in [[Manchukuo]]. That summer a Japanese army invaded eastern Mongolia. Soviet General [[Georgi Zhukov]] commanded the Soviet-Mongolian army that met this invasion. In a battle at Khalkhin-Gol (also '''Khalkhyn Gol''') on 20 August, the Soviets threw the Japanese back across the Manchurian border. <ref>Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''Sacred Secrets:  How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History'', Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2002, pg. 10.</ref>  The Japanese may have sustained as many as 80,000 casualties compared with 11,130 on the [[Comintern]] side. Hostilities ended on September 16, 1939. The Soviet Union and Japan signed a truce, and a commission was set up to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border. Although Japan did not invade again, it did mass large military forces along the Mongolian and the Soviet borders in the course of the war, while continuing its southward drive into China.  

In 1938, Soviet and Japanese fought many skirmishes across the common border their troops occupied along the Manchurian and Mongolian frontiers. Skirmishes, beginning in 1939, gradually grew into open warfare by May 1939 with Japanese forces based in [[Manchukuo]]. That summer a Japanese army invaded eastern Mongolia. Soviet General [[Georgi Zhukov]] commanded the Soviet-Mongolian army that met this invasion. In a battle at Khalkhin-Gol (also '''Khalkhyn Gol''') on 20 August, the Soviets threw the Japanese back across the Manchurian border. <ref>Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''Sacred Secrets:  How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History'', Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 2002, pg. 10.</ref>  The Japanese may have sustained as many as 80,000 casualties compared with 11,130 on the [[Comintern]] side. Hostilities ended on September 16, 1939. The Soviet Union and Japan signed a truce, and a commission was set up to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border. Although Japan did not invade again, it did mass large military forces along the Mongolian and the Soviet borders in the course of the war, while continuing its southward drive into China.  

 

The Soviet position in Mongolia was now fully consolidated. Throughout World War II, Choybalsan followed Moscow's directives,  livestock, raw materials, money, food, and military clothing were taken from Mongolia to the Soviet Union.

The Soviet position in Mongolia was now fully consolidated. Throughout World War II, Choybalsan followed Moscow's directives,  livestock, raw materials, money, food, and military clothing were taken from Mongolia to the Soviet Union.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and buildup of the national defense. The Soviet-Mongolian army defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.

Following the war, the Soviet Union reasserted its influence in Mongolia. Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. International ties were expanded, and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new communist governments in Eastern Europe. It also increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. Mongolia became a member of the United Nations in 1961.

After [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s 1956 condemnation of some of Joseph Stalin's crimes, the Mongolian People's Republic, following in the footsteps of the 'fraternal' Soviet Union, also succumbed to the 'thaw.' Khrushchev used de-Stalinization to discredit his hard-line opponents. Mongolia's leader, Yumjaagiyn Tsedenbal, was a Stalin-era holdover who came under criticism from his rivals for being unenthusiastic about political reforms. Tsedenbal had good reason to downplay de-Stalinization; he shared responsibility with Marshal Horloogiyn Choibalsan for violent repressions in the 1940's. But Tsedenbal outmaneuvered and eliminated his opponents in the late 1950's and early 1960's and consolidated his grip on power by 1964. Toward the end of that year, however, Tsedenbal once again was challenged, this time from an unexpected direction. Several members of the Central Committee of the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP) used the precedent of Khrushchev's forced retirement from his leadership posts in Moscow in October 1964 as a pretext to overthrow Tsedenbal. At a plenum of the MPRP Central Committee in December 1964, Tsedenbal was accused of incompetence, corruption, disrespect for principles of 'Party democracy,' lack of economic discipline, and overreliance on the Soviet Union for credits. But Tsedenbal rebuffed the 'anti-Party group' and depicted the affair as an attempted coup engineered by pro-Chinese sympathizers and spies. Soviet leaders were wary of Chinese efforts to 'subvert' Moscow's influence in the socialist camp and were therefore willing to endorse Tsedenbal's version of events.<ref> Sergey S. Radchenko, "Mongolian Politics in the Shadow of the Cold War: the 1964 Coup Attempt and the Sino-soviet Split," ''Journal of Cold War Studies'' 2006 8(1): 95-119, </ref>

 

In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics; this orientation changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia systematically began expelling some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China. Many of them had lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in construction projects.

 

In the years after 1990, Mongolia became a multi-party democracy, which -- in contrast to the almost previous 70 years -- actively sought ties with western countries, especially the US.

In the years after 1990, Mongolia became a multi-party democracy, which -- in contrast to the almost previous 70 years -- actively sought ties with western countries, especially the US.