Changes

==1898-1945==  

==1898-1945==  

===Open Door Policy===

===Open Door Policy===

The [[Open Door Policy]] called for equal foreign commercial access to [[History of China|China]], as opposed to closed spheres of influence. It came as the major powers were scrambling for special privileges in China. Its three interrelated goals were equality of commercial opportunity,  territorial integrity, and administrative integrity. The Open Door policy was formally announced by U.S. Secretary of State [[John Hay]] in 1899 and 1900, who asked all foreign powers agree to have commercial access to China on equal terms, while at the same time they were to respect China's territorial integrity. Britain, which controlled 80% of China's foreign trade, approved the new policy. The other countries had hoped for exclusive trading rights in ports they controlled, but were stymied by the success of the open door policy.  All the major powers agreed on the American proposal.  Anti-foreign sentiment in China almost ended the policy, as diplomats were threatened; the international powers sent armies that seized Beijing during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in 1900, and Hay ensured that the open policy was adhered to. The policy was reaffirmed by the Nine Power Treaty in 1922.  China finally gained some strength in the 1920s under the [[KMT]] and leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. Japan in the 1930s decided to circumvent the open door by occupying Manchuria (1931) and coastal China in 1937, leading to war between the U.S. and Japan in 1941.

The [[Open Door Policy]] called for equal foreign commercial access to [[History of China|China]], as opposed to closed spheres of influence. It came as the major powers were scrambling for special privileges in China. Its three interrelated goals were equality of commercial opportunity,  territorial integrity, and administrative integrity. The Open Door policy was formally announced by U.S. Secretary of State [[John Hay]] in 1899 and 1900, who asked all foreign powers agree to have commercial access to China on equal terms, while at the same time they were to respect China's territorial integrity. Britain, which controlled 80% of China's foreign trade, approved the new policy. The other countries had hoped for exclusive trading rights in ports they controlled, but were stymied by the success of the open door policy.  All the major powers agreed on the American proposal.  Anti-foreign sentiment in China almost ended the policy, as diplomats were threatened; the international powers sent armies that seized Beijing during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in 1900, and Hay ensured that the open policy was adhered to. The policy was reaffirmed by the Nine Power Treaty in 1922.  China finally gained some strength in the 1920s under the [[KMT]] and leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. Japan in the 1930s decided to circumvent the open door by occupying Manchuria (1931) and coastal China in 1937, leading to war between the U.S. and Japan in 1941.

===Roosevelt and Big Stick Diplomacy===

===Roosevelt and Big Stick Diplomacy===

Roosevelt's administration was marked by an active approach to foreign policy. He followed four basic principles: 1) promoting broadly defined American interests worldwide, 2) building American military and naval power and control over strategic points (especially the Panama canal and its approaches), 3) cooperation with the British, and 4) there was a social contract between the nation's citizens and its government, such that civilized nations had a right of intervention in cases in which such a contract had been broken. His foreign policy was well suited for the challenges of the world; he anticipated later attitudes and developments well into the 20th century and even the 21st century, as exemplified by [[John McCain]] in 2008.<ref> M. Patrick Cullinane, "Invoking Teddy: the Inspiration of John Mccain's Foreign Policy." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2008 19(4): 767-786 </ref> He combined a credible realist and internationalist approach with great attention to detail and full appreciation of the importance of diplomatic finesse.

Roosevelt's administration was marked by an active approach to foreign policy. He followed four basic principles: 1) promoting broadly defined American interests worldwide, 2) building American military and naval power and control over strategic points (especially the Panama canal and its approaches), 3) cooperation with the British, and 4) there was a social contract between the nation's citizens and its government, such that civilized nations had a right of intervention in cases in which such a contract had been broken. His foreign policy was well suited for the challenges of the world; he anticipated later attitudes and developments well into the 20th century and even the 21st century, as exemplified by [[John McCain]] in 2008.<ref> M. Patrick Cullinane, "Invoking Teddy: the Inspiration of John McCain's Foreign Policy." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2008 19(4): 767-786 </ref> He combined a credible realist and internationalist approach with great attention to detail and full appreciation of the importance of diplomatic finesse.

[[File:Tr-militarist-1904World.jpg|thumb|350px| The ''New York World'' newspaper, mouthpiece of liberal Democrats, blasts TR as a dangerous militaristic dictator in 1904]]

[[File:Tr-militarist-1904World.jpg|thumb|350px| The ''New York World'' newspaper, mouthpiece of liberal Democrats, blasts TR as a dangerous militaristic dictator in 1904]]

Tensions with Mexico, then in the throes of a violent civil war, escalated almost to the point of warfare. The U.S. sent military forces to chase Pancho Villa and to control the port of Vera Cruz. In 1917 both parties pulled back, and by 1920 the civil war was over.  

Tensions with Mexico, then in the throes of a violent civil war, escalated almost to the point of warfare. The U.S. sent military forces to chase Pancho Villa and to control the port of Vera Cruz. In 1917 both parties pulled back, and by 1920 the civil war was over.  

More serious was the worldwide Great War (now called [[World War I]] that began in 1914 and was killing millions of soldiers to no apparent end. Proclaiming neutrality, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] tried repeatedly to broker peace in 1915-1916, but the adversaries in Europe were both planning to win and did not want a negotiated settlement. After Germany started sinking American merchant ships in 1917, and tried to entire Mexico into going to war with the U.S. Wilson in April 1917 asked and received a declaration of war from Congress. Wilson argued persuasively that it was now necessary to fight against militarism and for democracy in the world. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to the [[Western Front]] in France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. The Americans and the Allies defeated the germans in late 1918--the so-called "armistice" was in effect a German surrender.

More serious was the worldwide Great War (now called [[World War I]] that began in 1914 and was killing millions of soldiers to no apparent end. Proclaiming neutrality, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] tried repeatedly to broker peace in 1915-1916, but the adversaries in Europe were both planning to win and did not want a negotiated settlement. After Germany started sinking American merchant ships in 1917, and tried to entice Mexico into going to war with the U.S. Wilson in April 1917 asked and received a declaration of war from Congress. Wilson argued persuasively that it was now necessary to fight against militarism and for democracy in the world. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to the [[Western Front]] in France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. The Americans and the Allies defeated the Germans in late 1918--the so-called "armistice" was in effect a German surrender.

Wilson, aided by his top advisor [[Colonel House]], played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]] that set the peace terms. Wilson failed to obtain Senate approval for the [[Treaty of Versailles]] because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]], and Republicans led by Senator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] demanded amendments (called "reservations") to protect American sovereignty, which Wilson rejected. The League went into operation but was ineffective; the U.S. never joined it.  

Wilson, aided by his top advisor [[Colonel House]], played a dominant role in ending the war with his [[Fourteen Points]] and played the central role at the 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]] that set the peace terms. Wilson failed to obtain Senate approval for the [[Treaty of Versailles]] because it required American entry into the [[League of Nations]], and Republicans led by Senator [[Henry Cabot Lodge]] demanded amendments (called "reservations") to protect American sovereignty, which Wilson rejected. The League went into operation but was ineffective; the U.S. never joined it.