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Line 28: − + − Martin Luther tried to revive the Catholic Church on October 31, 1517, when he nailed [[the 95 Theses]] or issues to the door of his [[Wittenberg Church]] in what is now Germany. The source of Luther's complaint was a project to rebuild [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in Rome, for which church officials were offering [[indulgences]] in exchange for donations. Martin Luther objected and produced a list of 95 complaints to spark public debate.+ + + + + + + + Line 36:
Line 43: + + + + + + + + + − But German nobles did not like the flow of money to Rome, and they backed Martin Luther in order to cut off the donations by Germans to support Rome. + + + − + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − It was then up to [[German]] authorities to take any legal action against Luther. The 21-year-old Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V King of Spain|Charles V]] ordered him to stand trial before an assembly (a "[[Diet]]") of estates of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] that met in Worms, a small town in what is now Germany. This famous assembly is therefore known as the "[[Diet of Worms]]." The verdict (the "[[Edict of Worms]]") was "guilty". Luther was declared an outlaw who should be arrested. + − But Luther had already left the trial before the verdict was rendered. He hid at Wartburg Castle at Eisenach, where [[Frederick of Saxony|Frederick the Wise]], Elector of Saxony, protected him. Luther took the pseudonym Junker Jorg (Nobleman George), grew a wide beard and dressed like a knight. While in hiding he translated the [[New Testament]] from Greek into German in 1522. (By 1534, Luther had translated all of the [[Old Testament]] from Hebrew to German also.)+ + + +
→Founding of Protestantism: add details
The critical point at which Luther's position diverged from that of the Catholic Church was in his absolute denial of man's ability to do anything whatsoever toward his own salvation. The Church taught that through grace man is given by God the ability to fulfill His commandments. Since man is free to reject this grace, if he accepts it instead and performs good works, his deeds are meritorious. But Luther affirmed that when good deeds are performed with an eye to reward they are damnable sins.
The critical point at which Luther's position diverged from that of the Catholic Church was in his absolute denial of man's ability to do anything whatsoever toward his own salvation. The Church taught that through grace man is given by God the ability to fulfill His commandments. Since man is free to reject this grace, if he accepts it instead and performs good works, his deeds are meritorious. But Luther affirmed that when good deeds are performed with an eye to reward they are damnable sins.
=== Founding of Protestantism ===
===Turning point: indulgences===
Luther's actual breach with the Church was occasioned by the pope's use of indulgences. An "indulgence" was a remission by the Church of punishment time in Purgatory, which was a penalty for sin. (Indulgences did not help souls sent to hell.)<ref> For the Catholic position see [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07783a.htm W.H. Kent, "Indulgences" in ''Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)]</ref> Invented in the 11th century, indulgences at first only remitted penalties imposed by the pope on earth, but by the 1480s the pope claimed an extension to penalties imposed by God in Purgatory. Some popes undertook not only to remit penalties but also to forgive sins. In return for such benefits the recipients made cash contributions in accord with a graded tariff based on ability to pay. The underlying theory of the entire transaction was that Christ and the saints by their good works had earned more credits than were needful for their own salvation and had stored up a treasury of merits from which the pope could make transfers to others.
The privilege of dispensing the particular indulgences which drew Luther's ire was granted by Pope Leo X to Albrecht, archbishop of Mainz. The public thought money was going to Rome to build St. Peter's Church; in reality, half the money went to Albrecht so that he could repay the loan that had enabled him to purchase from Rome a second archbishopric. The proclamation of the indulgence was entrusted to Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk with considerable experience in the field. The indulgence was declared, in an accompanying document, to confer the forgiveness of sin, and there was the further statement that those who secured indulgences for relatives in Purgatory need not themselves be contrite. Tetzel assured his hearers that:<ref> A. D. Dickens, ''Reformation and Society in Sixteenth-Century Europe'' (1966) p 61-2. </ref>
:As soon as the coin in the coffer rings
:The Soul from purgatory springs
==Break with Rome==
===95 Theses: 1517===
Luther's most dramatic move in trying to purify the Catholic Church on October 31, 1517, when he nailed [[the 95 Theses]] or issues to the door of his Wittenberg Church. The source of Luther's complaint involved thos indulgences. Luther objected and produced a list of 95 complaints to spark public debate.<ref>For the e-text see [http://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/web/ninetyfive.html English translation]; and [http://www-personal.ksu.edu/~lyman/english233/sg-95ths.htm Lyman Baker, "Study Guide for the ...Ninety-five Theses"] </ref> This procedure was customary among theologians. The Latin document had 95 theses.
Here are two of Luther's most important Theses:
Here are two of Luther's most important Theses:
*Thesis 86: ''Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?''<ref> The Latin read, ''Item. Cur Papa, cuius opes hodie sunt opulentissimis Crassis crassiores, non de suis pecuniis magis quam pauperum fidelium struit unam tantummodo Basilicam sancti Petri?''</ref>
*Thesis 86: ''Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?''<ref> The Latin read, ''Item. Cur Papa, cuius opes hodie sunt opulentissimis Crassis crassiores, non de suis pecuniis magis quam pauperum fidelium struit unam tantummodo Basilicam sancti Petri?''</ref>
===Uproar follows the 95 Theses===
The 95 Theses of 1517 hurled Luther into a world of swirling controversy and extreme danger, leading to his excommunication by the pope in 1520 and his criminalization in the Holy Roman Empire by the Diet of Worms in 1521. Luther's role changed from that of a would-be reformer of the Catholic Church to a declared foe of that institution, as it refused to heed his call to bring its beliefs and practice into line with the doctrines he had been uncovering in his study of the Bible.
Luther sharply attacked any linkage between the raising of money and the remission either of sins or penalties. He denied the jurisdiction of the pope over Purgatory, noting that if the pope could release souls, he should let them all out without collecting a penny. Many colleagues agreed with Luther thus far. But he went on to deny the fundamental theory of the treasury of the accumulated merits of the saints; he attacked not just the abuse of the indulgences but the core idea.
Luther sent a copy of his 95 theses to Archbishop Albrecht, asking him to stop the indulgences. Printed copies in Latin and German began to circulate widely, and many clerics agreed with Luther. Reform was in the air. The alarmed archbishop forwarded the document to Pope Leo X (1475–1521, pope 1513–21). Leo was a Medici, the son of [[Lorenzo the Magnificent]]; he was an aristocrat of dilettantish learning and a worldly patron of expensive arts and architecture (especially St. Peter's church) that had to be paid for. He had no interest in correcting the abuses of indulgence vending. Indeed, Leo routinely endorsed the claims of the indulgence-vendors and affirmed that souls were immediately released. Luther retorted that the pope was wrong. This was close to heresy. The pope summoned Luther to Rome. At this point Luther's prince, Frederick the Wise of Saxony, the senior member of the electors of the Holy Roman Empire, stepped in and insisted that his subject must have a fair hearing on German soil. The centuries-old German distrust of an Italian papacy was thus the first factor which gave Luther protection. German nobles did not like the flow of money to Rome, and they backed Luther in order to cut off the donations by Germans to support Rome.
A compromise was arranged that Luther would not go to Rome but would appear at a hearing before Cardinal Cajetan, a Dominican, at Augsburg in 1518.<ref> The Dominican order was a great rival of the Augustinians, and theologians took sides with Cajetan or Luther accordingly. MacCulloch (2005), p. 125-6</ref> The Cardinal confronted Luther with the papal pronouncement, or bull, of Clement VI in 1343, which contained the doctrine of the accumulated treasury of the merits of the saints. Luther rejected this bull, thereby impugning not only the authority of a particular pope but also of the canon law generally. He refused to recant his argument that the efficacy of a sacrament depended on the faith of the recipient. Luther thus called into question central traditions of the Church, saying the office of the pope and his authority was in opposition to God's word, and that sacraments were not automatically effective. Cajetan branded Luther a heretic. The pope wanted to seize Friar Martin and send him to Rome; but that was now politically impossible and did not happen.<ref>Mullett, (2004) p. 82-3; Smith, ''Life and Letters'' (1911), 48-54; for the Catholic viewpoint see [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03145c.htm John R. Volz, "Tommaso de Vio Gaetani Cajetan," ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' vol 3 (1908)]</ref>
===Papal response===
[[Pope Leo X]] spent his time on the beauty flourishing during the [[Renaissance]], and was a patron of the great artist [[Raphael]]. Pope Leo X probably never recognized the significance of Luther and his followers. Some historians feel that if the pope had responded more seriously, then the subsequent schism in Germany would not have occurred; others argue that a Reformation was inevitable and that many leaders were emerging.
[[Pope Leo X]] spent his time on the beauty flourishing during the [[Renaissance]], and was a patron of the great artist [[Raphael]]. Pope Leo X probably never recognized the significance of Luther and his followers. Some historians feel that if the pope had responded more seriously, then the subsequent schism in Germany would not have occurred; others argue that a Reformation was inevitable and that many leaders were emerging.
In 1520, Pope Leo X announced the papal bull [[Exsurge Domine]], which required Luther to withdraw 41 of his 95 Theses or be [[excommunicated]]. Luther refused and was then excommunicated by the Catholic Church.
===Luther counterattacks===
Instead Luther was free to publicize his position widely, so that everyone now recognized Luther as the defiant German rebel against the Church. He wrote a powerful series of pamphlets that rallied political and intellectual support.
In 1520, Pope Leo X announced the papal bull [[Exsurge Domine]], which required Luther to withdraw 41 of his 95 Theses or be [[excommunicated]]. Luther refused and was then excommunicated by the Catholic Church.
''The Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation'' called upon the rulers, including the emperor, to reform the Church. Luther demanded that the papacy be restored to the poverty and simplicity of the days of St Peter, with the pope turned virtually into a sort of St. Francis. Luther said the finances and vast real estate holdings of the Church should be handled by national churches, not the pope. Germans cheered. More radical was the demand for the abolition of clerical celibacy, which the Germans had opposed back when it was imposed in the 11th century by Gregory VII.
''On The Babylonian Captivity,'' written in Latin and directed at priests, was even more challenging. Luther attacked the sacramental character of the Church and thereby undercut its theocratic claims. The Church counted seven sacraments; Luther counted only two that were authorized by Christ, baptism and the Lord's Supper (and maybe penance, but he later dropped that one). Luther argued that the Catholic Mass was not the true Lord's Supper, for the Mass is not a repetition of the sacrifice of Christ. The wine as well as the bread should be given to the laity. Church doctrine held that the bread and wine of the Eucharist are actually transformed into the body and blood of Christ; only the outward appearances, or "accidents," of bread and wine remain. This doctrine was called ''transubstantiation,'' and was based on the philosophy of [[Aristotle]], whom Luther could not tolerate. Luther offered his own doctrine of ''consubstantiation''--that after consecration the substances of bread and wine remain along with the body and blood of Christ. The priest causes no miracle, because Christ is everywhere present and at all times. All that the minister does is to open the eyes of believers to Christ where he is, because God's presence and Christ's presence, though universal, are not universally obvious. When this tract appeared, [[Erasmus]], the eminent humanist in Amsterdam, declared the breach between Luther and the Church was now irreparable.<ref> Kyle A. Pasewark, "The Body in Ecstasy: Love, Difference, and the Social Organism in Luther's Theory of the Lord's Supper," ''The Journal of Religion'' Vol. 77, No. 4 (Oct., 1997), pp. 511-540 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-4189%28199710%2977%3A4%3C511%3ATBIELD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Q in JSTOR]</ref>
Luther went further, promulgating the doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. In the ''Freedom of the Christian Man'' Luther declared the Christian to be free from all priestcraft; the minister is merely one who, out of the body of the universal priests, has been set aside to perform a particular office.
===Diet of Worms: 1521===
The papal bull reached Luther on October 10, 1520. giving him 60 days to recant. Luther's reply was the tract ''Against the Execrable Bull of Antichrist''. On the day 60 he burned the bull in public. Formal excommunication was delayed. International politics came into play; Luther's protector, Elector Frederick of Saxony, was a critical person no power dared to alienate.
It was then up to German authorities to take any legal action against Luther. The 21-year-old Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V King of Spain|Charles V]] ordered him to stand trial before an assembly (a "Diet") of estates of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] that met in Worms, a small town in what is now Germany. This famous assembly is therefore known as the "Diet of Worms."
The Diet of Worms was an imperial meeting; it unexpectedly became a council of the Church. It would not take action without hearing Luther. Elector Frederick insisted that his subject be given a fair hearing, so Emperor Charles V, though a most orthodox Catholic, issued the summons to Luther, who arrived after a triumphal tour across Germany. Luther admitted he wrote the pamphlets and explained on April 18:
:Unless I am convicted by Scripture or by right reason (for I trust neither in popes nor in councils, for they have often erred and contradicted themselves)-- unless I am thus convinced, I am bound by the texts of the Bible, my conscience is captive to the Word of God, I neither can nor will recant anything, since it is neither right nor safe to act against conscience is neither. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.<ref> Luther may have added the famous line "Here I stand" later; Smith, ''Life and Letters'' pp. 118, 453</ref>
The verdict on May 25, 1521 (the "Edict of Worms") was "guilty". Luther was declared an outlaw who should be arrested. The lines of the Reformation were now hardened.
Luther had already left the trial before the verdict was rendered. He hid at Wartburg Castle at Eisenach, where [[Frederick of Saxony|Frederick the Wise]], Elector of Saxony, protected him. Luther took the pseudonym Junker Jorg (Nobleman George), grew a wide beard and dressed like a knight.
==Translations==
While in hiding he translated the [[New Testament]] from Greek into German in 1522. By 1534, Luther had translated all of the [[Old Testament]] from Hebrew to German also.
Luther translated Romans 3:28 by adding an extra German word for "alone" (alleine or alleyn) after the phrase: "justified by faith".<Ref> he wrote in german, "So halten wir nun dafür, daß der Mensch gerecht werde ohne des Gesetzes Werke, alleyn durch den Glauben."</ref> Luther believed that man is justified by faith alone, and that salvation comes only from faith. The Catholic Church taught that man is justified by faith, good works and confession to the Church authorities.
Luther translated Romans 3:28 by adding an extra German word for "alone" (alleine or alleyn) after the phrase: "justified by faith".<Ref> he wrote in german, "So halten wir nun dafür, daß der Mensch gerecht werde ohne des Gesetzes Werke, alleyn durch den Glauben."</ref> Luther believed that man is justified by faith alone, and that salvation comes only from faith. The Catholic Church taught that man is justified by faith, good works and confession to the Church authorities.