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:Therefore P is true

:Therefore P is true

"Ninety nine point nine percent of all respondents can't be wrong" is the classic phraseology of this fallacy One does not effectively disprove such an argument by challenging the numbers. Instead, one reminds the other person that the numbers of people holding to any given conclusion are irrelevant to establishing the truth or falsehood of that conclusion. [[History]] is in fact replete with multiple examples of conclusions that memorable [[science|scientists]] and other great discoverers have shown to be false even though large numbers of people believed them. [[Antoine Lavoisier]], who disproved "phlogiston" as the principle of fire, was one such person. [[Christopher Columbus]] and [[Ferdinand Magellan]] are two others.

"Ninety nine point nine percent of all respondents can't be wrong" is the classic phraseology of this fallacy One does not effectively disprove such an argument by challenging the numbers. Instead, one reminds the other person that the numbers of people holding to any given conclusion are irrelevant to establishing the truth or falsehood of that conclusion. [[History]] is in fact replete with multiple examples of conclusions that memorable [[science|scientists]] and other great discoverers have shown to be false even though large numbers of people believed them. [[Antoine Lavoisier]], who disproved "phlogiston" as the principle of fire, was one such person.

===Special pleading===

===Special pleading===

*Therefore R is true

*Therefore R is true

For example: "Crime rates are high, so we should increase the penalty for drug possession."

For example: "John Smith is an excellent fireman, therefore he'd make a great baker."

===Overgeneralization===

===Overgeneralization===

For example: "I just read that three kids were arrested yesterday for drug possession. Teens in this country are really going downhill!"

For example: "I just read that three kids were arrested yesterday for drug possession. Teens in this country are really going downhill!"

Overgeneralization the central problem in trying to conclude something about a population from a non-representative sample, or about a larger group from a non-representative subset of that group.

Overgeneralization the central problem in trying to conclude something about a population from a non-representative sample, or about a larger group from a non-representative subset of that group.

*Therefore Q is true

*Therefore Q is true

A classic example of argument from unqualified authority is a reference to a celebrity or religious leader for their opinion on a matter of science or public policy, when that celebrity or cleric has never adequately studied the subject. A standard argument from authority is often used by evolutionists.  A notable scientist claims that evolution is true, and based on that the average person is expected to believe in it as well.

A classic example of argument from unqualified authority is a reference to a celebrity or religious leader for their opinion on a matter of science or public policy, when that celebrity or cleric has never adequately studied the subject. A standard argument from authority is often used by evolutionists.  A notable scientist claims that evolution is true, and based on that the average person is expected to believe in it as well.  This is also commonly used by self-proclaimed pundits.  A notable sports announcer claims that he is a political expert, and based on that the general public is expected to believe that he knows what he's talking about.

==Fallacies of Presumption==

==Fallacies of Presumption==

:''Main article: [[Contradiction]]''

:''Main article: [[Contradiction]]''

A contradiction is a statement that contradicts its own terms. [[Aristotle]] famously stated that contradictions cannot exist. In any case of a contradiction, some of the premises must be false. A contradiction is an argument which includes in its reasoning:

A contradiction is a statement that contradicts its own terms. [[Aristotle]] famously stated that contradictions cannot exist.<ref>needs citation</ref> In any case of a contradiction, some of the premises must be false. A contradiction is an argument which includes in its reasoning:

*P

*P

: ''Main Article: [[Loaded question]]''

: ''Main Article: [[Loaded question]]''

A [[loaded question]] is a question that assumes facts, usually unflattering, that are not in evidence, with the intent of trapping the other person into admitting those facts. The classic loaded-question example is "When did you stop beating your wife?" Another example is, "Do you disbelieve in [[global warming]], which 99.9 percent of all reputable scientists now accept?"

A [[loaded question]] is a question that assumes facts, usually unflattering, that are not in evidence, with the intent of trapping the other person into admitting those facts. The classic loaded-question example is "When did you stop beating your wife?"

===Proof by assertion===

===Proof by assertion===

:''Main article: [[Circular reasoning]]''

:''Main article: [[Circular reasoning]]''

[[Circular reasoning]], also called begging the question (Lat: petitio principii), is a form of proof by assertion in which one asserts a premise, then asserts a conclusion from that premise (directly or indirectly), and then tries to show that the last conclusion ''supports'' the original premise.

[[Circular reasoning]] is a form of proof by assertion in which one asserts a premise, then asserts a conclusion from that premise (directly or indirectly), and then tries to show that the last conclusion ''supports'' the original premise.

 

Different from [[Circular reasoning]], Begging the Question asserts that an arguable premise is true when it has not yet been proven to be so.

====Infinite regression====

====Infinite regression====

For example: [[Panspermia]], an alternative to [[abiogenesis]] as a proposition about the origin of life, suffers from the infinite-regression flaw so long as it fails to state positively what conditions could have brought about an origin of life on a planet other than the earth, ''other than'' the alleged mechanism of the "seeding" of life on the earth itself.

For example: [[Panspermia]], an alternative to [[abiogenesis]] as a proposition about the origin of life, suffers from the infinite-regression flaw so long as it fails to state positively what conditions could have brought about an origin of life on a planet other than the earth, ''other than'' the alleged mechanism of the "seeding" of life on the earth itself.

====Your theory does not work under my theory, so your theory must be wrong====

====Your theory does not work under my theory, so your theory must be wrong====

===Conflation===

===Conflation===

Conflation is the treatment of two different concepts as one.  

Conflation is the treatment of two different concepts as one.  

===Division===

===Division===

For example: "The coach said we should eat light, so take your heavy coat off."

For example: "The coach said we should eat light, so take your heavy coat off."

== Related References ==

== Related References ==

*[http://www.theskepticsguide.org/logicalfallacies.asp SGU-Top 20 Fallacies]

*[http://www.theskepticsguide.org/logicalfallacies.asp SGU-Top 20 Fallacies]

*"The Fine Art of Baloney Detection."  Sagan, Carl.  ''The Demon-Haunted World, Science As a Candle in the Dark.'' Ballantine: New York, 1996; pp 201-218.

*"The Fine Art of Baloney Detection."  Sagan, Carl.  ''The Demon-Haunted World, Science As a Candle in the Dark.'' Ballantine: New York, 1996; pp 201-218.

== See Also ==

== See Also ==