Changes

The basic cause was the refusal of the British government to allow Americans a voice in setting taxes. Those that favored independence were called [[Patriot]]s and those that remained loyal to King [[George III]] were called [[Loyalists]]. Many people tried to remain neutral.  

The basic cause was the refusal of the British government to allow Americans a voice in setting taxes. Those that favored independence were called [[Patriot]]s and those that remained loyal to King [[George III]] were called [[Loyalists]]. Many people tried to remain neutral.  

[[Image:american-revolution-map.gif|thumb|200px|The 13 colonies in 1775]]

[[Image:american-revolution-map.gif|thumb|200px|The 13 colonies in 1775]]

* [[Stamp Act of 1765]], the British asserted power to tax without representation; foiled by bold American reaction

* [[Stamp Act of 1765]], the British asserted power to tax without representation; foiled by bold American reaction

* [[Townshend Acts]], 1767, more taxes imposed because the British insisted they could tax the Americans any time and any way

* [[Townshend Acts]], 1767, more taxes imposed because the British insisted they could tax the Americans any time and any way

The revolution occurred in the hearts and minds of Americans in 1774-1776 as they realized that continued subservience to the British Empire was impossible. The [[Seven Years War]] ended in British victory in 1763, and there were no foreign threats to the American colonies, nor any serious Indian threats.  London wanted stifling controls on the colonial economy and on westward expansion. They insisted that the colonists new taxes, but refused to allow representation in Parliament.  Britain was not asking the Americans to share the burden of warfare--they never asked the colonial legislatures for that.  Instead they insisted that Parliament had every right to tax the colonists whether they liked it or not.  Power was the issue. Ominously London sent thousands of regular army troops--was this to protect the colonists from nonexistent threats, or to protect the Royal officials from the anger of the people? Nothing seemed more dangerous to the precious political liberties of the Americans than the sort of standing army Britain was forcing upon them. The colonists responded by setting up their own shadow government, including local committees and (beginning in 1774) a [[Continental Congress]]. The Empire thought it knew how to suppress rebellions--in 1715 and 1745 it had ruthlessly crushed the Highlanders in Scotland; in the 17th century it had taken control of Ireland in campaigns that killed thousands of Catholic rebels and left the Protestants in total domination.  

The revolution occurred in the hearts and minds of Americans in 1774-1776 as they realized that continued subservience to the British Empire was incompatible with republicanism. The Loyalists were willing to be ruled by a distant aristocracy, the patriots were not.

 

The [[Seven Years War]] ended in British victory in 1763, and there were no foreign threats to the American colonies, nor any serious Indian threats.  London wanted stifling controls on the colonial economy and on westward expansion. They insisted that the colonists new taxes, but refused to allow representation in Parliament.  Britain was not asking the Americans to share the burden of warfare--they never asked the colonial legislatures for that.  Instead they insisted that Parliament had every right to tax the colonists whether they liked it or not.  Power was the issue. Ominously London sent thousands of regular army troops--was this to protect the colonists from nonexistent threats, or to protect the Royal officials from the anger of the people? Nothing seemed more dangerous to the precious political liberties of the Americans than the sort of standing army Britain was forcing upon them. The colonists responded by setting up their own shadow government, including local committees and (beginning in 1774) a [[Continental Congress]]. The Empire thought it knew how to suppress rebellions--in 1715 and 1745 it had ruthlessly crushed the Highlanders in Scotland; in the 17th century it had taken control of Ireland in campaigns that killed thousands of Catholic rebels and left the Protestants in total domination.  

Tensions came to a head in Massachusetts. In late 1773 at the [[Boston Tea Party]], patriots disguised as Indians dumped a shipment of tea into the harbor in protest.  London officials were outraged and plotted to so weaken Massachusetts that it could never defy the Empire again. In early 1774 Parliament passed the Coercive Acts that imposed near martial law, closed the courts, ended local government, shut the port of Boston, and suspended traditional civil liberties and economic freedom. Congress denounced the Acts, called for boycotts of British goods, and recommended that the militias ready their weapons. Georgia became the 13th colony represented in the Congress; however, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, East Florida, West Florida and several island colonies in the Caribbean remained loyal. The French Catholics in Canada much preferred the tolerance of London to the anti-Catholic Yankees; they stayed loyal, as did the wealthy sugar planters who controlled the numerous West Indian colonies. East Florida, West Florida and Newfoundland were so small, so new, and so dominated by the British army and navy that they stayed loyal. Nova Scotia (just north of Maine) was the curious case. It had been settled largely by New England [[Yankees]], who favored Congress. Yet it was an isolated island, easily controlled by the Royal Navy from its powerful base in Halifax. Protests were put down, and the people stayed neutral, pouring their emotions into religious revival rather than revolution.  

Tensions came to a head in Massachusetts. In late 1773 at the [[Boston Tea Party]], patriots disguised as Indians dumped a shipment of tea into the harbor in protest.  London officials were outraged and plotted to so weaken Massachusetts that it could never defy the Empire again. In early 1774 Parliament passed the Coercive Acts that imposed near martial law, closed the courts, ended local government, shut the port of Boston, and suspended traditional civil liberties and economic freedom. Congress denounced the Acts, called for boycotts of British goods, and recommended that the militias ready their weapons. Georgia became the 13th colony represented in the Congress; however, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, East Florida, West Florida and several island colonies in the Caribbean remained loyal. The French Catholics in Canada much preferred the tolerance of London to the anti-Catholic Yankees; they stayed loyal, as did the wealthy sugar planters who controlled the numerous West Indian colonies. East Florida, West Florida and Newfoundland were so small, so new, and so dominated by the British army and navy that they stayed loyal. Nova Scotia (just north of Maine) was the curious case. It had been settled largely by New England [[Yankees]], who favored Congress. Yet it was an isolated island, easily controlled by the Royal Navy from its powerful base in Halifax. Protests were put down, and the people stayed neutral, pouring their emotions into religious revival rather than revolution.  

However, there was one hope left: by fighting on perhaps the British forces could hold onto Canada, the Great Lakes, and New York City, and also chop off the most Loyalist, least developed part of the United States, the lower South. Then if the peace conference could confirm these holdings, the British Empire would emerge tattered but with honor intact, and a great deal of valuable territory as well. The US would be independent, but would be weak and not a threat. The downside to fighting on was that the alliance might win outright. France did send a large professional army which, combined with Washington's forces, had the potential to overwhelm the British. With control of the sea in doubt, the Royal Navy could no longer guarantee it could reinforce or evacuate a British land army that got in trouble. London realized that for all its corruption it was financially stronger than the allies; perhaps by holding out it could push the alliance into economic collapse. The new British strategy therefore called for a stronger navy, and an invasion of the American South. The navy was rebuilt successfully; the invasion was a disaster.

However, there was one hope left: by fighting on perhaps the British forces could hold onto Canada, the Great Lakes, and New York City, and also chop off the most Loyalist, least developed part of the United States, the lower South. Then if the peace conference could confirm these holdings, the British Empire would emerge tattered but with honor intact, and a great deal of valuable territory as well. The US would be independent, but would be weak and not a threat. The downside to fighting on was that the alliance might win outright. France did send a large professional army which, combined with Washington's forces, had the potential to overwhelm the British. With control of the sea in doubt, the Royal Navy could no longer guarantee it could reinforce or evacuate a British land army that got in trouble. London realized that for all its corruption it was financially stronger than the allies; perhaps by holding out it could push the alliance into economic collapse. The new British strategy therefore called for a stronger navy, and an invasion of the American South. The navy was rebuilt successfully; the invasion was a disaster.

===Native Americans===

===Native Americans===

The great majority of the 200,000 Native Americans east of the Mississippi distrusted the colonists and supported the British cause.<ref> Greene and Pole (2004) chapters 19, 46 and 51; Colin G. Calloway, ''The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities'' (1995)</ref> The British provided funding and guns to attack American outposts. Some Indians tried to remain neutral, seeing little value in participating yet again in a European conflict. A few supported the American cause.  

The great majority of the 200,000 Native Americans east of the Mississippi distrusted the colonists and supported the British cause.<ref> Greene and Pole (2004) chapters 19, 46 and 51; Colin G. Calloway, ''The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities'' (1995)</ref> The British provided funding and guns to attack American outposts. Some Indians tried to remain neutral, seeing little value in participating yet again in a European conflict. A few supported the American cause.  

The British provided arms for the Indians, under Loyalist leadership, to raid frontier settlements from the Carolinas to New York, massacring the men, women and children they caught, especially in Pennsylvania. The most prominent was Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, who led a band of 300 Indian warriors and 100 white loyalists multiple attacks on small settlements in New York and Pennsylvania in 1778 and 1780 .<ref>see Barbara Graymont, "Thayendanegea," [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36808&query=joseph%20AND%20brant ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']  </ref>  In 1776 Cherokee war parties attacked all along the southern frontier.<ref>Tom Hatley, ''The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South

The British provided arms for the Indians, under Loyalist leadership, to raid frontier settlements from the Carolinas to New York, massacring the men, women and children they caught, especially in Pennsylvania. The most prominent was Mohawk chief Joseph Brant, who led a band of 300 Indian warriors and 100 white loyalists multiple attacks on small settlements in New York and Pennsylvania in 1778 and 1780 .<ref>see Barbara Graymont, "Thayendanegea," [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36808&query=joseph%20AND%20brant ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']  </ref>  In 1776 Cherokee war parties attacked all along the southern frontier.<ref>Tom Hatley, ''The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians through the Era of Revolution'' (1993); James H. O'Donnell, III, ''Southern Indians in the American Revolution'' (1973)</ref>  

Carolinians through the Era of Revolution'' (1993); James H. O'Donnell, III, ''Southern Indians in the American Revolution'' (1973)</ref>  

While the Indians could launch raids with up to 100 warriors, they could not mobilize enough forces to fight a major invasion of thousands of soldiers, so the Americans sent invasion armies against the Cherokees in 1776 and 1780.  In 1779 Washington sent General [[John Sullivan]] with four well-supplied brigades of Continental soldiers (4000 men) to drive the Iroquois out of upstate western New York. There was little combat but Sullivan systematically burned 40 (empty) Indian villages and, most important, destroyed about 160,000 bushels of corn that comprised the winter food supply. Facing starvation the Iroquois permanently fled to the Niagara Falls area and to Canada, where the British fed them.<ref> Joseph R. Fischer, ''A Well-Executed Failure: The Sullivan Campaign against the Iroquois, July-September 1779'' (1997).</ref>  

While the Indians could launch raids with up to 100 warriors, they could not mobilize enough forces to fight a major invasion of thousands of soldiers, so the Americans sent invasion armies against the Cherokees in 1776 and 1780.  In 1779 Washington sent General [[John Sullivan]] with four well-supplied brigades of Continental soldiers (4000 men) to drive the Iroquois out of upstate western New York. There was little combat but Sullivan systematically burned 40 (empty) Indian villages and, most important, destroyed about 160,000 bushels of corn that comprised the winter food supply. Facing starvation the Iroquois permanently fled to the Niagara Falls area and to Canada, where the British fed them.<ref> Joseph R. Fischer, ''A Well-Executed Failure: The Sullivan Campaign against the Iroquois, July-September 1779'' (1997).</ref>