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The '''Ancient Egyptian''' civilisation flourished in the Nile Valley from the late 4th millennium BC, until it’s absorption into the [[Roman empire]] in 30BC. After this time Ancient Egyptian culture and religion continued to flourish in Egypt until a decree by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in the 6th century AD forced the closure of [[Philae]] Temple.  

The '''Ancient Egyptian''' civilisation flourished in the Nile Valley from the late 4th millennium BC, until its absorption into the [[Roman empire]] in 30 BC. After this time Ancient Egyptian culture and religion continued to flourish in Egypt until a decree by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in the 6th century AD forced the closure of [[Philae]] Temple.  

Pharaonic culture, statecraft, literature, law, religious belief, scientific and technological advantages left a profound legacy upon the world, in particular the [[Greek civilization]] which absorbed much Egyptian learning through the Ptolemaic metropolis of [[Alexandria]].

[[Pharaoh|Pharaonic]] culture, statecraft, literature, law, religious belief, scientific and technological advantages left a profound legacy upon the world, in particular the [[Greece|Greek civilization]] which absorbed much Egyptian learning through the Ptolemaic metropolis of [[Alexandria]].

== Geography ==

== Geography ==

Ancient Egypt was a culture focused around the [[Nile Valley]], and it was here the Predynastic confederacies and petty chieftains were finally united to begin the Dynastic period at the end of the forth millennium BC.  

Ancient Egypt was a culture focused around the [[Nile Valley]], and it was here the Predynastic confederacies and petty chieftains were finally united to begin the Dynastic period at the end of the fourth millennium BC.  

The Nile Valley had a profound impact upon Egyptian culture and thinking, and it’s natural boundaries of almost empty deserts to east and west, the first cataract in the south, and [[Mediterranean]] sea in the north fostered the early adoption of a nation-state identity. These boundaries also protected Egypt in times of strife elsewhere in the region. Despite this, Egypt was not an island, and traded with neighbours in [[Nubia]], [[Libya]] and the [[Levant]], as well as further afield.

The Nile Valley had a profound impact upon Egyptian culture and thinking. Its natural boundaries of almost empty deserts to east and west, the first cataract in the south, and [[Mediterranean]] sea in the north fostered the early adoption of a nation-state identity. These boundaries also protected Egypt in times of strife elsewhere in the region. Despite this, Egypt was not an island, and traded with neighbours in [[Nubia]], [[Libya]] and the [[Levant]], as well as further afield.

Egypt’s climate varied over time and location, through during the Dynastic era was, as it is today, predominantly a [[desert climate]], with long, hot summers and short, relatively mild winters, with rainfall being insignificant, with a Mediterranean climate prevailing in the Delta and far north.   

Egypt’s climate varied over time and location, through during the Dynastic era was, as it is today, predominantly a [[desert climate]], with long, hot summers and short, relatively mild winters, with rainfall being insignificant, with a Mediterranean climate prevailing in the Delta and far north.   

== Government ==

== Government ==

Throughout the Dynastic Period, Egypt was an [[absolute monarchy]], ruled by a monarch regarded as divine. Egypt was a centralized state, with the monarch having the positions of [[head of state]], [[head of government]], head of the judiciary, [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces, and high priest of every temple. The monarch had several titles, the most well known being from the Greek derived “[[Pharaoh]]” (Egyptian: pr-aA, reconstructed as Per-‘a), though the more common Egyptian title was nsw-bity (Nesu-Bity), possibly translated as “[[King of Upper and Lower Egypt]]"). Day to day administration was overseen by a [[vizier]] (Egyptian: TAty, reconstructed as Tjaty), and in some periods of Egyptian history two viziers were appointed, one for Upper and one for Lower Egypt, reflecting a duality present in much of the administration.

Throughout the Dynastic Period, Egypt was an [[absolute monarchy]], ruled by a monarch regarded as divine. Egypt was a centralized state, with the monarch having the positions of [[head of state]], [[head of government]], head of the judiciary, [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces, and high priest of every temple. The monarch had several titles, the most well known being from the Greek derived “[[Pharaoh]]” (Egyptian: pr-aA, reconstructed as Per-‘a), though the more common Egyptian title was nsw-bity (Nesu-Bity), possibly translated as “King of Upper and Lower Egypt"). Day to day administration was overseen by a [[vizier]] (Egyptian: TAty, reconstructed as Tjaty), and in some periods of Egyptian history two viziers were appointed, one for Upper and one for Lower Egypt, reflecting a duality present in much of the administration.

The treasury, likewise, reflected the natural separation of the country, though a single treasurer oversaw both “The Overseer of the Double Granaries” being a common title for this role.

The treasury, likewise, reflected the natural separation of the country, though a single treasurer oversaw both “The Overseer of the Double Granaries” being a common title for this role.

From at least the New Kingdom, Egypt maintained a full time professional military force consisting of an army and naval fleet, as well as a separate police and patrol force, the mDAw (reconstructed as Medjay).

From at least the New Kingdom, Egypt maintained a full time professional military force consisting of an army and naval fleet, as well as a separate police and patrol force, the mDAw (reconstructed as ''Medjay'').

Labour for large scale state works was provided by the public under a corvee requirement. See: [[Labour in Ancient Egypt]].

Labour for large-scale state works was provided by the public under a corvee requirement. See: [[Labour in Ancient Egypt]].

== Economy ==

== Economy ==

The economy of Ancient Egypt has sometimes been described as a command economy. There is insufficient information available to determine to exact what degree the state directed economic activity, but that it played a very large role in the economy is clear, and in keeping with the Egyptian doctrine that the land and its resources belonged to the Pharaoh. The view of many scholars is that this position was more literally true in the Old Kingdom, and over time, as the population expanded and economy became more complex, more delegation and autonomy became necessary, and towards the end of Late Period land could be brought and sold by private individuals.

The economy of Ancient Egypt has sometimes been described as a command economy. There is insufficient information available to determine to exactly what degree the state directed economic activity, but that it played a very large role in the economy is clear, and in keeping with the Egyptian doctrine that the land and its resources belonged to the Pharaoh. The view of many scholars is that this position was more literally true in the Old Kingdom, and over time, as the population expanded and economy became more complex, more delegation and autonomy became necessary, and towards the end of Late Period, land could be brought and sold by private individuals.

=== Agriculture ===

=== Agriculture ===

The bedrock of the Egyptian economy, and source of it’s wealth with irrigation assisted agriculture. The Nile valley was an almost perfect environment for agriculture to thrive, with abundant water, extremely rich and continually refreshed soil, and one of the only places where soil salinisation did not occur. The principal crops were emmer wheat, barely and flax, backed up by market gardening (onions, garlic, lettuce, cabbages etc). However a variety of luxury goods were also grown, and it is known the grapes for wine were cultivated, alongside orchards, almonds and olives, dates, and bee-keeping for honey. Animal rearing, particularly cattle ranching was also important.

The bedrock of the Egyptian economy, and source of its wealth, was irrigation-assisted agriculture. The Nile valley was an almost perfect environment for agriculture to thrive, with abundant water and fertile top soil. The Nile flooding, almost every year, would deposit extremely rich and continually refreshed soil, and the floods made Egypt one of the only places where soil salinisation did not occur. The principal crops were emmer wheat, barely and flax, backed up by market gardening (onions, garlic, lettuce, cabbages etc). However, a variety of luxury goods were also grown, and it is known the grapes for wine were cultivated, alongside orchards, almonds and olives, dates, and bee-keeping for honey. Animal rearing, particularly cattle ranching, was also important.

=== Mining ===

=== Mining ===

Mining and quarrying were important state industries, supplying the raw material for tools and luxury goods. Egypt had abundant limestone, sandstone, granite gold and copper reserves, along with precious and semi precious gemstones. Quarrying was almost entirely a royal monopoly, but small scale private extraction by nonarchs occurred in sites nearest to the river. (see A[[ncient Egyptian Mining]])

Mining and quarrying were important state industries, supplying the raw materials for tools and luxury goods. Egypt had abundant limestone, sandstone, granite, gold and copper reserves, along with precious and semi-precious [[gemstone]]s. Quarrying was almost entirely a royal monopoly, but small-scale private extraction by monarchs occurred in sites nearest to the river. (see: [[Ancient Egyptian Mining]]).

=== Trade ===

=== Trade ===

For most of Egyptian history international trade was a royal monopoly, and was enforced through a system of border checkpoints. Merchants mostly operated by acting as agents for the state and essentially treading on their behalf, and goods in international trade were taxed. Major transactions and contracts were put in writing, and records survive. In the Ptolemaic period, a sales tax was also levied.

For most of Egyptian history, the international trade was a royal monopoly, and was enforced through a system of border checkpoints. Merchants mostly operated by acting as agents for the state and essentially trading on their behalf, and goods in international trade were taxed. Major transactions and contracts were put in writing, and records survive. In the Ptolemaic period, a [[sales tax]] was also levied.

From the time of unification onwards Egypt traded with her immediate neighbors in Nubia and southern Palestine, and by the 2nd Dynasty royal trading expeditions traded regularly with Bybos, a key Egyptian partner in foreign affairs throughout much of the Pharaonic period. Trade with Punt, a land generally regarded as lying in the region of Eritrea was established by the 5th Dynasty, if not earlier.

From the time of unification onwards Egypt traded with her immediate neighbors in Nubia and southern Palestine, and by the 2nd Dynasty royal trading expeditions traded regularly with Bybos, a key Egyptian partner in foreign affairs throughout much of the Pharaonic period. Trade with Punt, a land generally regarded as lying in the region of Eritrea was established by the 5th Dynasty, if not earlier.

== Society ==

== Society ==

Egyptian society was deeply conservative and hierarchical. The pyramid analogy is perhaps over used to describe Egyptian society, but nonetheless remains accurate, with the Pharaoh at the apex, above the vizier and other prominent courtiers, some with seemingly trivial titles but great influence, such as Fan Bearers, Sandal Bearers, Seal Bearers etc.

Egyptian society was deeply conservative and hierarchical. The pyramid analogy is perhaps over used to describe Egyptian society, but nonetheless remains accurate, with the [[Pharaoh]] at the apex, above the vizier and other prominent courtiers, some with seemingly trivial titles but great influence, such as Fan Bearers, Sandal Bearers, Seal Bearers etc.

Beneath these were the Great Nobles, followed by Egypt’s large bureaucracy and officialdom. Beneath them stood the artisans and craftsmen. At the bottom of society proper, and accounting for circa. 80% of the population, the farmers. In addition to this, as in all societies, there also existed the “classless” people. Convicts, captives and the unfree, as well as the desert nomads and oasis dwellers who lives within Egypt’s area of influence, but never entirely integrated into Egyptian society.

Beneath these were the Great Nobles, followed by Egypt’s large bureaucracy and officialdom. Beneath them stood the artisans and craftsmen. At the bottom of society proper, and accounting for circa. 80% of the population, the farmers. In addition to this, as in all societies, there also existed the “classless” people. Convicts, captives and the unfree, as well as the desert nomads and oasis dwellers who lives within Egypt’s area of influence, but never entirely integrated into Egyptian society.