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'''Henry VIII''' (June 28, 1491, to January 28, 1547) was the King of [[England]] and Lord of [[Ireland]] from April 22, 1509, until his death. A larger-than-life man and one of England's most famous monarchs, he was the second monarch of the [[Tudor Dynasty]] succeeding his father [[Henry VII]] and was one of the most powerful and formative rulers in British history.  Henry was a powerfully built, athletic, attractive, domineering charismatic man, educated and accomplished.  He was the last English king to rule with absolute power. His need for a male heir to perpetuate the Tudor Dynasty led to his six marriages. He fashioned the [[English Reformation]] as a compromise between the [[Lutheran]]s and [[Calvinist]]s on the one hand and the [[Catholic]]s on the other, and made the [[Church of England]] subordinate to the king. His public image is lustful, egotistical, deceitful, opinionated, and insecure when dealing with his wives, and his vast wasteful luxuries and useless wars depleted the treasury.

'''Henry VIII''' (b. June 28, 1491, d. January 28, 1547) was the King of [[England]] and Lord of [[Ireland]] from April 22, 1509 until his death. A larger-than-life figure and one of England's most famous monarchs, he was the second monarch of the [[Tudor Dynasty]], succeeding his father [[Henry VII]], and was one of the most powerful and formative rulers in British history.  Henry was a powerfully built, athletic, attractive, domineering but charismatic man, educated and accomplished.  He was the last English king to rule with absolute power. His need for a male heir to perpetuate the Tudor Dynasty led to his having six marriages.  

 

It was under Henry's children and successors, Edward VI and Elizabeth I, that the [[English Reformation]] was fashioned as a compromise between the [[Lutheran]]s and [[Calvinist]]s on the one hand and the [[Catholic]]s on the other. Nevertheless, Henry's famous break with the Papacy facilitated later events affecting the English Church.  

 

His public image is lustful, egotistical, deceitful, opinionated, and insecure when dealing with his wives; and his vast, wasteful luxuries and useless wars depleted the treasury.

[[File:Henry8.jpg|thumb|280px]]

[[File:Henry8.jpg|thumb|280px]]

== Early life==

== Early life==

===Anne Boleyn===

===Anne Boleyn===

By 1527 Henry had fallen for [[Anne Boleyn]] (1507–1536).  Anne was not content to be a mistress, which set about a chain of events that shook up the nation.  Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother.  The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused.  This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed their acceptance. Henry then made the decision to break from the Catholic Church who he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir through Katherine.  Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king over the Pope.  Many could not sign -- and died.  With Henry now head of the Church, his divorce was granted and he married Anne in 1533 - a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine. Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and not a son like Henry desired.  She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. (In terms of  shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential wife. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed.<ref> G. W. Bernard, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258  in Jstor]; Retha M. Warnicke, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]</ref>

By 1527 Henry had become deeply infatuated with [[Anne Boleyn]] (1507–1536).  Anne was not content to be a mistress, which set about a chain of events that shook the nation.  Henry sought papal consent to have his marriage to Katherine annulled since she had previously been married to his brother.  The papacy, which was under a great deal of pressure from the Spanish not to grant the request, refused.  This brought about the downfall of Cardinal Wosley in Henry's sight since he had virtually guaranteed acceptance of the annullment.  

 

Henry then made the decision to break from the Roman Catholic Church, which he claimed had no right to interfere in the political succession of England, and which he stated was occurring since he had no male heir by Katherine.  Catholic clergy then had to sign an oath to the king rather than to the Pope.  Many could not sign -- and died.  With Henry now head of the [[Church of England]], his divorce/annullment was granted and he married Anne in 1533. She bacame a very unpopular queen with the people who had loved Katherine.  

 

Anne had a daughter in 1533 (the future Queen [[Elizabeth I]]) and it was a son that Henry desired to have.  She became pregnant again, but her son was stillborn. In terms of  shaping policy, Anne, who was strongly committed to Protestantism, was the most influential of his wives. Historians have vigorously debated explanations for the trial and execution of Anne in 1536. One school emphasizes contentious court factions in which Queen Anne was an innocent pawn. G. W. Bernard (1991) argues that she and the five men executed with her were probably guilty of incest and adultery as charged. Both points of view were also expressed by contemporary diplomats reporting from London, who may have been misled by rumors and deliberate government misinformation. Use of traditions of courtly love to explain Anne's relationship with the other accused (opening herself to slander) is speculative. Direct evidence for actual guilt is not convincing. Warnicke (1993) offers a controversial explanation: Anne gave birth to a deformed fetus in January, 1536, provoking in Henry, who learned of the miscarriage and its circumstances after some delay, both rage and fear, as well as a certainty of his consort's adultery and witchcraft, an explanation necessary not only to his psyche but to the preservation of the reputation of his kingdom and the schismatic church that he headed.<ref> G. W. Bernard, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn." ''English Historical Review'' 1991 106(420): 584-610. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/573258  in Jstor]; Retha M. Warnicke, "The Fall of Anne Boleyn Revisited." ''English Historical Review'' 1993 108(428): 653-665. Issn: 0013-8266 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/574751 in Jstor]</ref>

===Later marriages===

===Later marriages===

In 1536 the death of Katherine of Aragon freed Henry for an unquestionably lawful marriage. In 1536 he chose [[Jane Seymour]] (1509-1537), who died the next year of natural causes after providing a son, the future King [[Edward VI]]. In 1540, Cromwell's Protestant policy involved marriage to [[Anne of Cleves]] (1515–57), whom Henry disliked from the first. The marriage remained unconsummated and ended in annulment. In August 1540 Henry made a love match with [[Catherine Howard]] (1521–1542), but being far younger than him, she may not have shared a mutual attraction; she was beheaded, accused of adultery. Finally in 1543, he settled for a more placid consort in [[Catherine Parr]] (1512–48).

In 1536 the death of Katherine of Aragon freed Henry for an unquestionably lawful marriage. That same year he chose [[Jane Seymour]] (1509-1537), who died the next year of natural causes after providing him with a son, the future King [[Edward VI]]. In 1540, Cromwell's Protestant policy involved marriage to [[Anne of Cleves]] (1515–57), whom Henry disliked from the first. The marriage remained unconsummated and ended in annulment. In August 1540 Henry made a love match with [[Catherine Howard]] (1521–1542), but being far younger than him, she may not have shared a mutual attraction. She was beheaded, having been accused of adultery. Finally in 1543, he settled for a more placid consort in [[Catherine Parr]] (1512–48).

By 1540 the vigor had gone out of the reign and out of Henry. The debacle of the Cleves marriage cost Cromwell his head and Henry his leading minister. Overconfidence drew the king once more into a continental and Scottish war (1542-1546), a war that gained no glory but whose expense ruined the English economy. In 1541 Henry became king of Ireland (previously he was "Ruler of Ireland.")

By 1540 the vigor had gone out of the reign and out of Henry. The debacle of the Cleves marriage cost Cromwell his head and Henry his leading minister. Overconfidence drew the king once more into a continental and Scottish war (1542-1546), a war that gained no glory but whose expense ruined the English economy. In 1541 Henry became king of Ireland (previously he was "Ruler of Ireland.")