Changes

When talking about Indian cultures, keep in mind that the Indians in what is now the United States were a diverse selection of cultures, which included [[nomads]] from the Great Plains in the Midwest, Indian settlements in the West, and among Eastern tribes there were quasi-governmental systems with formal treaties.  Most tribes did not have a formal monetary systems, but the Cherokee and the Iroquois Nations did have business transactions.  None of the tribes of the North American continent had any formal writing systems. The Indians did introduce [[tobacco]] and [[corn]] to Europeans, which became widely popular back in Europe.  Europeans also brought new things to the Indians, such as horses and guns.

When talking about Indian cultures, keep in mind that the Indians in what is now the United States were a diverse selection of cultures, which included [[nomads]] from the Great Plains in the Midwest, Indian settlements in the West, and among Eastern tribes there were quasi-governmental systems with formal treaties.  Most tribes did not have a formal monetary systems, but the Cherokee and the Iroquois Nations did have business transactions.  None of the tribes of the North American continent had any formal writing systems. The Indians did introduce [[tobacco]] and [[corn]] to Europeans, which became widely popular back in Europe.  Europeans also brought new things to the Indians, such as horses and guns.

Modern historians claim that the Viking [[Leif Ericson]] established a "Vinland" colony around A.D. 1000 on the island now known as [[Newfoundland]], in the far east of Canada.  There is limited physical evidence of the colony and it is not known what eventually happened to it. The colony, if it did exist, did not last long, and there is no sign of any Viking colony in what is now the United States.<ref>"People have been looking hard for hundreds of years and there is no archaeological evidence in this part [New England]— it's certainly possible, the Vikings were incredible boat handlers — '''but there is no evidence'''," observed one university history professor.[http://farshores.org/a04viki.htm]</ref>

Modern historians claim that the Viking [[Leif Ericson]] established a "Vinland" colony around A.D. 1000 on the island now known as [[Newfoundland]], in the far east of Canada.  There is limited physical evidence of the colony and it is not known what eventually happened to it. The colony, if it did exist, did not last long, and there is no sign of any Viking colony in what is now the United States.<ref>"People have been looking hard for hundreds of years and there is no archaeological evidence in [New England]— it's certainly possible, the Vikings were incredible boat handlers — '''but there is no evidence'''," observed one university history professor.[http://farshores.org/a04viki.htm]</ref>

'''Exam note''': there are no more than a few questions about the Pre-Columbian (prior to Christopher Columbus) period on any American history exam.

'''Questions''': when do you think Native Americans first settled North America?  Do you think the Vikings really had a colony in Newfoundland, and why might one be skeptical about that claim?

 

'''Questions: when do you think Native Americans first settled North America?  Do you think the Vikings really had a colony in Newfoundland, and why might one be skeptical about that claim?'''

== Exploration (Columbian Period) ==

== Exploration (Columbian Period) ==

But Columbus had grossly underestimated the size of the world, and when he reached San Salvador, Haiti (Hispaniola) and Cuba he thought he had reached the Far East.  So he called the natives "Indians".  He left some men there but they were eventually killed by the natives.  Columbus reported back that new people had been found to evangelize with Christianity.

But Columbus had grossly underestimated the size of the world, and when he reached San Salvador, Haiti (Hispaniola) and Cuba he thought he had reached the Far East.  So he called the natives "Indians".  He left some men there but they were eventually killed by the natives.  Columbus reported back that new people had been found to evangelize with Christianity.

Soon Spain and Portugal divided the Americas with the [[Line of Demarcation]], drawn by the Pope.  The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] moved the line in 1493.  It was a North-South line that gave Spain North America and the western part of South America, but Portugal received Brazil.  That's why Brazilians speak Portuguese to this day.

Soon Spain and Portugal divided the Americas with the [[Line of Demarcation]], drawn by the Pope.  The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] moved the line in 1493.  It was a North-South line that gave North America and the western part of South America to Spain, but Brazil was given to Portugal.  That's why Brazilians speak Portuguese to this day.

The incredible genius of Columbus -- or Providence -- was demonstrated a year later on his second voyage across the Atlantic.  Amid the vast ocean, Columbus was able to return to exactly the same location that he had reached on his first voyage on the island of [[Hispaniola]].  That is like finding a needle in a haystack the size of a football stadium.  But Columbus's colony had not survived in his absence.

The incredible genius of Columbus -- or Providence -- was demonstrated a year later on his second voyage across the Atlantic.  Amid the vast ocean, Columbus was able to return to exactly the same location that he had reached on his first voyage on the island of [[Hispaniola]].  That is like finding a needle in a haystack the size of a football stadium.  But Columbus's colony had not survived in his absence.

But while Spanish soldiers came to America, Spanish women did not.  So there were not many distinct, permanent Spanish settlements.  Also, the Spanish were entirely subservient to their King back in Europe.  Separate governments did not develop.

But while Spanish soldiers came to America, Spanish women did not.  So there were not many distinct, permanent Spanish settlements.  Also, the Spanish were entirely subservient to their King back in Europe.  Separate governments did not develop.

Other European powers were exploring North America also.  The French explored the St. Lawrence and settled Quebec, where French is still spoken to this day.  The French also explored the Mississippi, and settled the towns of Saint Louis (named after a French king) and New Orleans.

Other European powers were also exploring North America.  The French explored the St. Lawrence and settled Quebec, where French is still spoken to this day.  The French also explored the Mississippi, and settled the towns of Saint Louis (named after a French king) and New Orleans.

The Dutch explored and settled the Hudson River, calling the region New Netherlands and buying and naming Manhattan New Amsterdam.

The Dutch explored and settled the Hudson River, calling the region New Netherlands and buying and naming Manhattan New Amsterdam.

There wasn't anything else of much value to Europe.  New England was too rocky near the coast to develop farms.  The mid-Atlantic region or Chesapeake area, where Maryland and Virginia are today, was infested with malaria. Winters were cold, and summers were hot.

There wasn't anything else of much value to Europe.  New England was too rocky near the coast to develop farms.  The mid-Atlantic region or Chesapeake area, where Maryland and Virginia are today, was infested with malaria. Winters were cold, and summers were hot.

There was no livestock – no horses and no cattle, until the Spanish imported them.  Florida was a swamp, and did not even have orange trees until the Spanish explorer [[Ponce de Leon]] planted them in 1515.   

There was no livestock – no horses or cattle, until the Spanish imported them.  Florida was a swamp, and did not even have orange trees until the Spanish explorer [[Ponce de Leon]] planted them in 1515.   

North America was a joke to many in England.  Its Parliament passed a law in 1597 authorizing the deportations of convicted criminals to America and other colonies.  In 1605, a satirical book entitled “Eastward Ho!” was published that mocked attempts to settle in Virginia.

North America was a joke to many in England.  Its Parliament passed a law in 1597 authorizing the deportations of convicted criminals to America and other colonies.  In 1605, a satirical book entitled “Eastward Ho!” was published that mocked attempts to settle in Virginia.

[[England]]'s first settlement of [[North America]] was in 1585, on [[Roanoke Island]] in [[Virginia]].  More than 100 families settled there, but within a few years they had all disappeared.  It remains a mystery to this day what happened.  They could have died from disease or starvation.  They could have been killed by Indians.  No one knows the real reason for the disappearance of this settlement, and it's called the "[[Lost Colony]]."

[[England]]'s first settlement of [[North America]] was in 1585, on [[Roanoke Island]] in [[Virginia]].  More than 100 families settled there, but within a few years they had all disappeared.  It remains a mystery to this day what happened.  They could have died from disease or starvation.  They could have been killed by Indians.  No one knows the real reason for the disappearance of this settlement, and it's called the "[[Lost Colony]]."

About the same time, however, England had a huge success in Europe.  Spain had ruled the high seas for most of the 1500s, until England destroyed the Spanish Armada in 1588.  That left England with the potential to gain control of the oceans and world trade over the seas.  England could then protect its newly developing colonies against other European powers.

About the same time, however, England obtained a big victory in Europe.  Spain had ruled the high seas for most of the 1500s, until England destroyed the Spanish Armada in 1588.  That left England with the potential to gain control of the oceans and world trade over the seas.  England could then protect its newly developing colonies against other European powers.

'''Debate:  Did Europeans have a right to explore North America?'''

'''Debate:  Did Europeans have a right to explore North America?'''

'''1607''' is one of the few dates you should memorize.  This was after the Spanish had settled in Florida, but before the French had settled in Quebec.  So remember the sequence in settling America:  Spanish, English, and then French.

'''1607''' is one of the few dates you should memorize.  This was after the Spanish had settled in Florida, but before the French had settled in Quebec.  So remember the sequence in settling America:  Spanish, English, and then French.

Initially, from 1607-1608, the Jamestown settlement lived under socialism, whereby the group shared its food with everyone no matter how much or little each person worked.  This economic system was a complete failure that led to "starving time" as no one had any incentive to do any work to provide the necessities of life.  In September 1608, [[John Smith]] was elected president of the governing council.  He ruled for a year and installed a conservative economic system:  "don't work, don't eat!"  Under this new system that replaced communism with free enterprise, after a few years food production began to increase significantly and by 1614 there was plenty to eat.

Initially, from 1607-1608, the Jamestown settlement lived under socialism, whereby the group shared its food with everyone no matter how much or little each person worked.  This economic system was a complete failure that led to "starving time" as no one had any incentive to do any work to provide the necessities of life.  In September 1608, [[John Smith]] was elected president of the governing council.  He ruled for a year and installed a conservative economic system:  "don't work, don't eat!"  Because free enterprise replaced socialism, after a few years food production began to increase significantly and by 1614 there was plenty to eat.

Jamestown settlers had come to America to find fortune, but there was not any gold or silver.  Indians had discovered tobacco and shared it with Europeans who were beginning to become addicted on it.  Many Europeans recognized that tobacco was bad for them, and some wanted to prohibit it.  In 1613, Englishman [[John Rolfe]], who married the Indian [[Pocahontas]] in Virginia, began growing tobacco to export to Europe.  The King banned the growing of tobacco in England, so Rolfe had no competition.  Cash began pouring in for the tobacco, and this so-called "cash crop" became highly profitable for the Jamestown settlers.  Tobacco continued to be very profitable throughout a large part of American history, particularly in the South.

Jamestown settlers had come to America to find fortune, but there was not any gold or silver.  Indians had discovered tobacco and shared it with Europeans who were beginning to become addicted on it.  Many Europeans recognized that tobacco was bad for them, and some wanted to prohibit it.  In 1613, Englishman [[John Rolfe]], who married the Indian [[Pocahontas]] in Virginia, began growing tobacco to export to Europe.  The King banned the growing of tobacco in England, so Rolfe had no competition.  Cash began pouring in for the tobacco, and this so-called "cash crop" became highly profitable for the Jamestown settlers.

Although it profited from the sale of tobacco, the Jamestown settlement had many difficulties.  It had made peace with Indian [[Chief Powhatan]], whose daughter Pocahontas married settler [[John Rolfe]].  But after Powhatan died, his brother led a sudden attack on the settlers in 1622, massacring 357 out of just 1200.

Although it profited from the sale of tobacco, the Jamestown settlement had many difficulties.  It had made peace with Indian [[Chief Powhatan]], whose daughter Pocahontas married settler [[John Rolfe]].  But after Powhatan died, his brother led a sudden attack on the settlers in 1622, massacring 357 out of just 1200 (over a third of them).

But Indian strife was only one of many problems.  Labor was in short supply for working the fields.  Settlers began importing indentured servants, who received free travel to the colonies in exchange for a promise to work for seven years.  Virginia also turned to a cheaper approach to labor: importing slaves from West Africa beginning in 1619 to work the crops.  The importation of slaves to the New World was not new in 1619; many European countries had been importing a total of 40,000 slaves to the New World prior to the 1600's based on the Portuguese plantation system for working the land.

But Indian strife was only one of many problems.  Labor was in short supply for working the fields.  Settlers began importing indentured servants, who received free travel to the colonies in exchange for a promise to work for seven years.  Virginia turned to a cheaper form of labor: importing slaves from West Africa beginning in 1619 to work the crops.  The importation of slaves to the New World was not new in 1619; many European countries had been importing a total of 40,000 slaves to the New World prior to the 1600's based on the Portuguese plantation system for working the land.

In 1624 King James (of the "King James Bible" fame) took back ownership and control of the Virginia colony and established it as a royal charter.  The Virginia colony was mess, a problem colony that enslaved workers and grew tobacco.  More trouble was in its future.  In 1676, Nathanial Bacon was a Virginia settler who decided to take the law into his own hands.  He first massacred Indians in western Virginia, then took his small army of rebels to Jamestown, where he burned it down because the governor had refused to allow him to kill the Indians.  Bacon himself soon died from a disease.  This is known as [[Bacon's Rebellion]] and it resulted in less use of indentured servants and greater reliance on slaves, who could not rebel as easily.  Once he was sure Bacon was really dead, the governor returned and hung two dozen of his supporters.

In 1624 King James (of the "King James Bible" fame) took back ownership and control of the Virginia colony and established it as a royal charter.  The Virginia colony was mess, a problem colony that enslaved workers and grew tobacco.  More trouble was in its future.  In 1676, Nathanial Bacon was a Virginia settler who decided to take the law into his own hands.  He first massacred Indians in western Virginia, then took his small army of rebels to Jamestown, where he burned it down because the governor had refused to allow him to kill the Indians.  Bacon himself soon died from a disease.  This is known as [[Bacon's Rebellion]] and it resulted in less use of indentured servants and greater reliance on slaves, who could not rebel as easily.  Once he was sure Bacon was really dead, the governor returned and hung two dozen of his supporters.

The Virginia colony, despite all its troubles, later produced four of our first five presidents.  Why?  It was big and rather prosperous.   

The Virginia colony, despite all its troubles, later produced four of our first five presidents.  Why?  Because it was big and prosperous.   

Let's turn to the Massachusetts settlements next.  Massachusetts had a much harsher climate than Virginia, particularly in the wintertime.  Its settlers were motivated by religion, not money.  They were unhappy with the oppressions of the Church of England, feeling it was too much like the Catholic Church.  Two different groups of these people set out for North America.  The first group, the Separatists or Pilgrims, wanted to separate completely from the Church of England and establish a religiously pure community.  The second group consisted of more mainstream Puritans who wanted to purify the church from within, without leaving it.  Both groups were types of Puritans, and both groups landed by chance within 100 miles of each other in Massachusetts.

Let's turn to the Massachusetts settlements next.  Massachusetts had a much harsher climate than Virginia, particularly in the wintertime.  Its settlers were motivated by religion, not money.  They were unhappy with the oppressions of the Church of England, feeling it was too much like the Catholic Church.  Two different groups of these people set out for North America.  The first group, the Separatists or Pilgrims, wanted to separate completely from the Church of England and establish a religiously pure community.  The second group consisted of more mainstream Puritans who wanted to purify the church from within, without leaving it.  Both groups were types of Puritans, and both groups landed by chance within 100 miles of each other in Massachusetts.

Corn is a tremendous contribution by Indians to the world, and it sustains entire countries to this day.  Most of us eat lots of corn; corn is also used to make ethanol fuel, and the rising prices for fuel have caused corn prices to increase, which in turn has caused other food and meat to rise in price because animals depend on corn for food.  But corn did not exist in Europe during the Middle Ages.  Cheap and easy to grow, corn has become one of the most popular foods worldwide, rivaling rice and soybeans.  We can thank the Indians.   

Corn is a tremendous contribution by Indians to the world, and it sustains entire countries to this day.  Most of us eat lots of corn; corn is also used to make ethanol fuel, and the rising prices for fuel have caused corn prices to increase, which in turn has caused other food and meat to rise in price because animals depend on corn for food.  But corn did not exist in Europe during the Middle Ages.  Cheap and easy to grow, corn has become one of the most popular foods worldwide, rivaling rice and soybeans.  We can thank the Indians.   

Encouraged by the success of the Pilgrims, a new group called the [[Massachusetts Bay Company]] obtained a royal charter and sent a larger group of Puritans to settle in New England, this time with the purpose of purifying the [[Church of England]] with a more perfect community than in England itself.  It was well-financed and led by the very capable [[John Winthrop]], who had been trained at Oxford.  They landed in Salem, Massachusetts in 1629 and immediately moved to Boston Harbor.  They never looked back, thriving almost immediately despite the harsh winter climate.  Within five years the [[Great Migration]] of religiously motivated settlers followed them from England.  Their numbers and power grew.  By the 1640s, the community was participating in robust trade by sea with England, the West Indies, and on occasion West Africa.

Encouraged by the success of the Pilgrims, a new group called the [[Massachusetts Bay Company]] obtained a royal charter and sent a larger group of Puritans to settle in New England, this time with the purpose of purifying the [[Church of England]] with a more perfect community than in England itself.  It was well-financed and led by the very capable [[John Winthrop]], who had been trained at Oxford.  They landed in Salem, Massachusetts in 1629 and immediately moved to Boston Harbor.  They never looked back, thriving almost immediately despite the harsh winter climate.  Within five years the [[Great Migration]] of religiously motivated settlers followed them from England.  Their numbers and power grew.  By the 1640s, the community was participating in robust trade by sea with England, the West Indies, and on occasion with West Africa.

== The Colonies ==

== The Colonies ==

From 1607 to 1639, a total of six colonies were established in what is now the United States: Virginia, Massachusetts, New Netherlands (renamed New York), Maryland, Rhode Island and Connecticut.  There were four basic types of colonies:

From 1607 to 1639, a total of six colonies were established in what is now the United States: Virginia, Massachusetts, New Netherlands (renamed New York), Maryland, Rhode Island and Connecticut.  There were four basic types of colonies:

*'''Joint-Stock Colony''': investors fund a colony through a joint-stock company; examples were Virginia and Massachusetts Bay

*'''Joint-Stock Colony''': investors fund a colony through a joint-stock company; examples were Virginia and Massachusetts Bay.

*'''Charter Colony''': founded on land granted by the king to a company or person who governed by it; examples were Connecticut and Rhode Island, which obtained charters many years after being settled

*'''Charter Colony''': founded on land granted by the king to a company or person who governed by it; examples were Connecticut and Rhode Island, which obtained charters many years after being settled.

*'''Proprietary Colony''': owned and controlled by 1 or more persons; examples were Maryland, Pennsylvania (William Penn), Delaware and New York

*'''Proprietary Colony''': owned and controlled by 1 or more persons; examples were Maryland, Pennsylvania (William Penn), Delaware and New York.

*'''Royal Colony''': a colony founded or taken back under rule of king, who appoints the governor to rule it; many colonies eventually became royal colonies as the King took back control, as happened in Virginia

*'''Royal Colony''': a colony founded or taken back under rule of king, who appoints the governor to rule it; many colonies eventually became royal colonies as the King took back control, as happened in Virginia.

The growing colonies in Massachusetts and Virginia could not have been more different from each other, and it is remarkable they eventually joined the same country.  Massachusetts was highly religious and motivated by faith.  Virginia was marginally religious and motivated by money.  Massachusetts, more religious, had vocal opponents of slavery and neighboring Vermont was the first state to prohibit slavery in its Constitution, in 1777.  In contrast, Virginia welcomed slavery.  Massachusetts grew the Indian crop of corn.  Virginia grew the Indian crop of tobacco.  Massachusetts settlers made greater efforts to get along with Indians and treat them fairly.  Massachusetts attracted new settlers based on religion.  Virginia attracted new European settlers based on the "headright system," by which land (usually 50 acres) was given to those who paid for the passage to the colony of an immigrant, who usually agreed to work as an "indentured servant" for free for fixed number of years on the land.   

The growing colonies in Massachusetts and Virginia could not have been more different from each other, and it is remarkable they eventually joined the same country.  Massachusetts was highly religious and motivated by faith.  Virginia was marginally religious and motivated by money.  Massachusetts, more religious, had vocal opponents of slavery and neighboring Vermont was the first state to prohibit slavery in its Constitution, in 1777.  In contrast, Virginia welcomed slavery.  Massachusetts grew the Indian crop of corn.  Virginia grew the Indian crop of tobacco.  Massachusetts settlers made greater efforts to get along with Indians and treat them fairly.  Massachusetts attracted new settlers based on religion.  Virginia attracted new European settlers based on the "headright system," by which land (usually 50 acres) was given to those who paid for the passage to the colony of an immigrant, who usually agreed to work as an "indentured servant" for free for fixed number of years on the land.   

Another devout Christian who disagreed with the Puritans, [[Anne Hutchinson]], was tried by them in 1636 for emphasizing "grace" rather than "works", and she was forced to flee.  She escaped the Puritans but was later killed by Indians.  Religious persecution continued in Massachusetts in the mid-1600s: the Baptists were banished in 1651, and the Quakers were expelled or -- when they remained or returned -- they were hung.

Another devout Christian who disagreed with the Puritans, [[Anne Hutchinson]], was tried by them in 1636 for emphasizing "grace" rather than "works", and she was forced to flee.  She escaped the Puritans but was later killed by Indians.  Religious persecution continued in Massachusetts in the mid-1600s: the Baptists were banished in 1651, and the Quakers were expelled or -- when they remained or returned -- they were hung.

The Congregational Church was started by Pilgrims in Plymouth (1620) as Independents.  Like the Puritans themselves, the Congregationalists declined over time due dispersal of the population on farms, the growth of rationalism, and perhaps the biggest reason of all, prosperity and the arrogance it often engenders.

The Congregational Church was started by Pilgrims in Plymouth (1620) as Independents.  Like the Puritans themselves, the Congregationalists declined over time due dispersal of the population on farms, the formation of public schools, and perhaps the biggest reason of all, prosperity and the arrogance it often engenders.

Cracks in the Puritan way became clear in the Halfway Covenant of 1657.  This was an agreement (a covenant) achieved at an assembly of Puritans from Massachusetts and Connecticut to allow halfway church membership and baptism for sinners.  Second and third-generation Puritans seemed more interested in money than having the "born again" religious conversion necessary to become a full member of the Puritan Church and required in order to be allowed to baptize their children in the Church.  The Reverend Solomon Stoddard, whose grandson would be [[Jonathan Edwards]] (whom we will discuss in the next class), proposed partial or "halfway" membership in the Church of children and grandchildren of Church members.  All the children and grandchildren need do was accept the Covenant and agree to the beliefs and rules of the Church, in order to participate in the sacraments of the Church.  But they would not be allowed to vote on any Church issues until they had a spiritual conversion.  This approach was adopted, but continued to be resisted by people on both sides of the issue:  some who thought it was too lenient, and others who found it too strict.

Cracks in the Puritan way became clear in the Halfway Covenant of 1657.  This was an agreement (a covenant) achieved at an assembly of Puritans from Massachusetts and Connecticut to allow halfway church membership and baptism for sinners.  Second and third-generation Puritans seemed more interested in money than having the "born again" religious conversion necessary to become a full member of the Puritan Church and required in order to be allowed to baptize their children in the Church.  The Reverend Solomon Stoddard, whose grandson would be [[Jonathan Edwards]] (whom we will discuss in the next class), proposed partial or "halfway" membership in the Church of children and grandchildren of Church members.  All the children and grandchildren need do was accept the Covenant and agree to the beliefs and rules of the Church, in order to participate in the sacraments of the Church.  But they would not be allowed to vote on any Church issues until they had a spiritual conversion.  This approach was adopted, but continued to be resisted by people on both sides of the issue:  some who thought it was too lenient, and others who found it too strict.

Ultimately, and this is the most difficult for students to understand, it is money ([[economics]]) that shapes much of history.  If the colonies were profitable for their mother countries in Europe, then the mother countries would continue to support and defend the colonies.  But if the colonies were a money-loser, as in costing more to defend then they make, then they are going to be abandoned or at least no longer protected by the European mother country.

Ultimately, and this is the most difficult for students to understand, it is money ([[economics]]) that shapes much of history.  If the colonies were profitable for their mother countries in Europe, then the mother countries would continue to support and defend the colonies.  But if the colonies were a money-loser, as in costing more to defend then they make, then they are going to be abandoned or at least no longer protected by the European mother country.

Many of the colonies did make this work, and work well.  An [[economic]] system called [[mercantilism]] began to develop in the 1600s and 1700s, which would lay the foundation for capitalism in the 1800s.<ref>http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/mercantilism.html</ref>

Many of the colonies did make this work, and work well.  An [[economic]] system called '''[[mercantilism]]''' began to develop in the 1600s and 1700s, which would lay the foundation for capitalism in the 1800s.<ref>http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/mercantilism.html</ref>

The basic concept of mercantilism is to limit imports from foreign countries (not including colonies), and maximize exports to everyone (including other colonies), in order to maximize the "trade surplus" (the amount by which receipts exceeds expenses).  Colonies played an important role in this system by supplying raw materials at low cost to the mother country (e.g., England or France), which could then use the materials to produce low-cost finished products that could be sold to the world.<ref>http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Mercantilism.html</ref>  By selling more than the country buys, it could accumulate a surplus in money (gold) and become wealthier.  In other words, mercantilism was an economic system in which the colonies existed to give raw materials to mother country (England), and buy her finished products, so that England could export more than it imported and thereby increase its gold reserves from a surplus in the balance of trade.

The basic concept of mercantilism is to limit imports from foreign countries (not including colonies), and maximize exports to everyone (including other colonies), in order to maximize the "trade surplus" (the amount by which receipts exceeds expenses).  Colonies played an important role in this system by supplying raw materials at low cost to the mother country (e.g., England or France), which could then use the materials to produce low-cost finished products that could be sold to the world.<ref>http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Mercantilism.html</ref>  By selling more than the country buys, it could accumulate a surplus in money (gold) and become wealthier.  In other words, mercantilism was an economic system in which the colonies existed to give raw materials to mother country (England), and buy her finished products, so that England could export more than it imported and thereby increase its gold reserves from a surplus in the balance of trade.

The Spanish system looked better in theory, because the encomendero was supposed to educate the encomiendas, convert them to Christianity (Catholicism), and not exercise any political power over them (as in telling them how to live).  In practice, however, there were no "checks and balances" preventing exploitation and abuse of power in working the Indians.

The Spanish system looked better in theory, because the encomendero was supposed to educate the encomiendas, convert them to Christianity (Catholicism), and not exercise any political power over them (as in telling them how to live).  In practice, however, there were no "checks and balances" preventing exploitation and abuse of power in working the Indians.

Finally, College Board exams may ask about the "triangular trade" that supposedly dominated from 1640-1720.  Later historians have used the image of triangle to show trade routes from West Africa to the New World America (the West Indies or the colonies), from there to Europe (England or continental Europe), and from there the boats presumably traveled back to West Africa to begin again.  The harshest part of this route was the taking of slaves, bound in chains from West Africa to the New World.  After the slaves disembarked, the New World would load goods onto the ships (such as raw molasses if the West Indies, or tobacco if Virginia) for transport to Europe.  But what doesn't make sense about this theory is the following:  what would Europe send on the ships back to Africa?  Nothing comes to mind (other than a few goods to purchase the slaves), and not a single instance of an actual triangle route has ever been found.  Perhaps finished product, like rum from the molasses, would be loaded onto the ships, but its intended destination would be the colonies, not Africa.  So in reality the only triangle could only be traversed by the boats, not by actual trade.

College Board exams may ask about the "triangular trade" that supposedly dominated from 1640-1720.  Modern historians have used the image of triangle to show trade routes from West Africa to the New World America (the West Indies or the colonies), from there to Europe (England or continental Europe), and from there the boats presumably traveled back to West Africa to begin again.  The harshest part of this route was the taking of slaves, bound in chains from West Africa to the New World.  After the slaves disembarked, the New World would load goods onto the ships (such as raw molasses if the West Indies, or tobacco if Virginia) for transport to Europe.  But what does not make sense about this theory is the following:  what would Europe send on the ships back to Africa?  Nothing comes to mind (other than a few goods to purchase the slaves), and not a single instance of an actual triangle route has ever been found.  Perhaps finished product, like rum from the molasses, would be loaded onto the ships, but its intended destination would be the colonies, not Africa.  So in reality the only triangle could only be traversed by the boats, not by actual trade.

'''Debate: Did "triangular trade" really exist?'''

'''Debate: Did "triangular trade" really exist?'''

The CLEP is a multiple-choice exam that is recognized by most (but not all) colleges as a way to earn college credit.  It costs about $70 and is administered on computers at local colleges, usually once a month.  It is the least biased of the three exams, and not much advanced planning is needed to sign up for it.   

The CLEP is a multiple-choice exam that is recognized by most (but not all) colleges as a way to earn college credit.  It costs about $70 and is administered on computers at local colleges, usually once a month.  It is the least biased of the three exams, and not much advanced planning is needed to sign up for it.   

The AP, or Advanced Placement exam, is given only once a year in May at local high schools, and is more expensive.  It includes both multiple-choice and essay questions, and is used by more colleges to give credit for courses.  In 2009, the AP exam for U.S. History is scheduled for Friday, May 9.  The student must sign up for it long in advance, and make arrangements with a public high school.

The AP, or Advanced Placement exam, is given only once a year early in May at local high schools, and is more expensive.  It includes both multiple-choice and essay questions, and is used by more colleges to give credit for courses.  The student must sign up for it long in advance, and make arrangements with a nearby high school.

The SAT II in American History is an inexpensive multiple-choice exam that takes only an hour and is given at high schools on Saturdays once a month, October through June, with registration available online at www.collegeboard.com .  No college credit is given for it, but it is used for college applications to recognize achievement.  The SAT II is the cheapest and most biased of the three exams, and is known for emphasizing liberal culture.  Also, what counts as "economic history" is not what you might expect.  There are almost no questions about the [[conservative]] gold standard, for example, even though that issue has been important throughout history (and was even an issue in [[Ron Paul]]'s campaign for presidency in 2008).  Instead, questions about economic history on the SAT II are likely to be about unions, the treatment of workers, alleged corruption of big business, discrimination, and gender issues.

The SAT II in American History is an inexpensive multiple-choice exam that takes only an hour and is given at high schools on Saturdays once a month, October through June, with registration available online at www.collegeboard.com .  No college credit is given for it, but it is used for college applications to recognize achievement.  The SAT II is the cheapest and most biased of the three exams, and is known for emphasizing liberal culture.  Also, what counts as "economic history" is not what you might expect.  There are almost no questions about the [[conservative]] gold standard, for example, even though that issue has been important throughout history (and was even an issue in [[Ron Paul]]'s campaign for presidency in 2008).  Instead, questions about economic history on the SAT II are likely to be about unions, the treatment of workers, alleged corruption of big business, discrimination, and gender issues.