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[[American History Lecture Two|Lecture]] - [[American_History_Homework_Two|Questions]] - [[American History Homework Two Answers|Student Answers]]

[[American History Lecture Two|Lecture]] - [[American_History_Homework_Two|Questions]] - [[American History Homework Two Answers|Student Answers]]

Before we start our second lecture for American history, are some some test-taking tips for multiple-choice history exams.  Test-taking is a skill; master it and you will excel in any career you choose.  Treat a multiple-choice exam like a contest or a game.  How well do depends on two components:  how well you prepared prior to the exam, and how well you tried on the exam itself.  Everyone can improve their test-taking skills and obtain higher scores on all multiple choice exams.

Before we start our second lecture for American history, here are several test-taking tips for multiple-choice history exams.  Test-taking is a skill; master it and you will excel in any career you choose.  Treat a multiple-choice exam like a contest or a game.  How well do depends on two components:  how well you prepared prior to the exam, and how well you tried on the exam itself.  Everyone can improve their test-taking skills and obtain higher scores on all multiple choice exams.

== Test-taking tips ==

== Test-taking tips ==

There are six ways to improve your score while taking an exam.  Following these tips can improve your score significantly:

There are seven ways to improve your score while taking an exam.  Following these tips can improve your score significantly:

1. Understand the question.  The better you understand the question, the more likely you can answer it correctly.  Beware of qualifiers in the question, such as "EXCEPT":  "Each of the following was a cause of the Revolutionary War EXCEPT ...."

1. Understand the question.  The better you understand the question, the more likely you can answer it correctly.  Beware of qualifiers in the question, such as "EXCEPT":  "Each of the following was a cause of the Revolutionary War EXCEPT ...."

*The answer is something you never heard of.  Don't pick it simply based on a hope that it might be right.

*The answer is something you never heard of.  Don't pick it simply based on a hope that it might be right.

*Two answers are too similar to each other.  Both cannot be correct, so the correct answer must be something else.

*Two answers are too similar to each other.  Both cannot be correct, so the correct answer must be something else.

5. Go with your first impression unless you have a good reason to change it.  Don't outsmart yourself by going against your first impression.

5. Go with your first impression unless you have a good reason to change it.  Don't outsmart yourself by repeatedly going against your first impression.

<br>6. Don't let a few hard questions cause you to lose momentum during the exam.  Remember that all questions count equally in your score.

<br>6. Don't let a few hard questions cause you to lose momentum during the exam.  Remember that all questions count equally in your score.

<br>7. On College Board exams, expect some bias.  For example, College Board exams rarely ask about wars, have several questions about women in history, and are more likely to ask more about the decline of the [[Puritans]] than about their [[Christian]] success.

<br>7. On College Board exams, expect some bias.  For example, College Board exams rarely ask about military battles, often have questions about women in history, and are more likely to ask about the decline of the [[Puritans]] than about their [[Christian]] success.

The above 7 tips can significantly improve your scores.  Now back to history:

The above 7 tips can significantly improve your scores.  Now back to history:

== Colonial History  ==

== Colonial History  ==

During the colonial period, each colony had its own separate government.  The colonies functioned like separate, independent countries.  There were no restrictions on travel.  But if someone said the wrong thing in one colony (such as [[Puritan]]-controlled [[Massachusetts]]), then he might be kicked out and told never to return.

During the colonial period, each colony had its own separate government.  The colonies functioned like independent nations.  There were no restrictions on travel.  But if someone said the wrong thing in one colony (such as [[Puritan]]-controlled [[Massachusetts]]), then he might be kicked out and told never to return.

The only union among colonies before the [[American Revolution]] was the "United Colonies of New England, which existed from 1643 to 1684" in the northeast.  It consisted of a union of Massachusetts, Plymouth, [[Connecticut]] and New Haven in order to fight wars and resolve interstate disputes.  Other than that, "disunity" existed among the colonies.  Here's an easy-to-use summary of each colony, in chronological order:

The only union among colonies before the [[American Revolution]] was the "United Colonies of New England, which existed from 1643 to 1684" in the northeast.  It consisted of a union of Massachusetts, Plymouth, [[Connecticut]] and New Haven in order to fight wars and resolve interstate disputes.  Other than that, "disunity" existed among the colonies.  Here's an easy-to-use summary of each colony, in chronological order:

|'''Who Founded It'''

|'''Who Founded It'''

|'''Why It Was Founded'''

|'''Why It Was Founded'''

|'''Year it Became a Royal Colony'''

|'''Year it Became a Royal Colony (controlled by the King)'''

|-

|-

|Virginia

|Virginia

|}

|}

Learn and remember the above chart.<ref>The terms "England" and "Britain" are used interchangeably (with the same meaning) throughout this course.</ref>  Notice how many colonies became royal colonies.  Frequently, this occurred because joint stock companies (such as the Virginia Company of London) became insolvent (went broke), or the proprietors (owners) of the colony proved unable to govern it.  

Learn and remember the above chart.<ref>The terms "England" and "Britain" are used interchangeably (with the same meaning) throughout this course.</ref>  Notice how many colonies became royal colonies under the control of the King of England.  Frequently, this occurred because joint stock companies (such as the Virginia Company of London) became insolvent (went broke), or the proprietors (owners) of the colony proved unable to govern it.  

Now let's continue with the Colonies around the turn of the century (i.e., the late 1600s and early 1700s).  Don't memorize dates, but do keep time periods separate in your mind.  In the 1600s most of the colonies were just getting started (except for [[Georgia]], which was the only colony founded in the 1700s rather than the 1600s).  In the 1700s, the colonies (except for Georgia) had long been established and were growing stronger.   

Now let's continue with the Colonies around the turn of the century (i.e., the late 1600s and early 1700s).  Don't memorize dates, but do keep time periods separate in your mind.  In the 1600s most of the colonies were just getting started (except for [[Georgia]], which was the only colony founded in the 1700s rather than the 1600s).  In the 1700s, the colonies (except for Georgia) had long been established and were growing stronger.   

I should be able to mention an event and you should be able to tell me if it happened in the 1600s or 1700s.  Learn to quiz yourself:  Jamestown settlement, 1600s or 1700s?  [[Bacon's Rebellion]], 1600s or 1700s?  Founding of [[Pennsylvania]], 1600s or 1700s?  If you don't know the answers in all three cases, then please go back and reread the first lecture.

I should be able to mention an event and you should be able to tell me if it happened in the 1600s or 1700s.  Develop a habit of quizzing yourself:  Jamestown settlement, 1600s or 1700s?  [[Bacon's Rebellion]], 1600s or 1700s?  Founding of [[Pennsylvania]], 1600s or 1700s?  If you don't know the answers in all three cases, then please go back and reread the first lecture.

Events in Europe affected the American colonies.  Upheaval occurred in England in 1688.  The people there overthrew [[King James II]], who was Catholic.  His daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange took the throne and reinstated Protestantism, and adopted the [[English Bill of Rights]].  A century later this would inspire the American Bill of Rights,  One of the first American universities, "William & Mary" in Virginia, was named after King William and Queen Mary.   

Events in Europe affected the American colonies.  Upheaval occurred in England in 1688.  The people there overthrew [[King James II]], who was Catholic.  His daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange took the throne and reinstated Protestantism, and adopted the [[English Bill of Rights]].  A century later this would inspire the American Bill of Rights,  One of the first American universities, "William & Mary" in Virginia, was named after King William and Queen Mary.   

The girls -- who were only 9 and 11 years old -- told identical details about how the devil visited them, including seeing "witches flying through the winter mist."  Tituba first denied being a witch, but then "confessed" that she was a witch and named other townswomen (including a tavern owner) who she said were witches working with her.  Tituba declared that a tall man from Boston, perhaps Satan, visited her and sometimes appeared as a dog or a hog, asking her to do his work.  She said she had flown through the air on poles with the other witches she named, and could not obtain counseling from the minister because the devil had blocked her path.<ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/SAL_ACCT.HTM</ref>

The girls -- who were only 9 and 11 years old -- told identical details about how the devil visited them, including seeing "witches flying through the winter mist."  Tituba first denied being a witch, but then "confessed" that she was a witch and named other townswomen (including a tavern owner) who she said were witches working with her.  Tituba declared that a tall man from Boston, perhaps Satan, visited her and sometimes appeared as a dog or a hog, asking her to do his work.  She said she had flown through the air on poles with the other witches she named, and could not obtain counseling from the minister because the devil had blocked her path.<ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/salem/SAL_ACCT.HTM</ref>

Before long the local jails were overflowing with witches identified by other witches who had "confessed", and trials had to be held to free up space in jail.  Keep in mind that Puritans were running these trials, and they allowed  "spectral evidence" as a basis for convicting someone.  "Spectral evidence" is testimony by a victim that she had been visited by an image ("specter") of the accused, thereby suggesting the guilt of the accused.  This type of evidence is not allowed today.  Another flaw in the Puritans' legal system included a lack of a defense attorney for the accused, the allowance of "touching tests" as evidence, and the case did not have to be proven "beyond reasonable doubt," as it must be today.

Before long the local jails were overflowing with witches identified by other so-called witches who had "confessed", and trials had to be held in order to free up space in jail.  Keep in mind that Puritans were running these trials, and they allowed  "spectral evidence" as a basis for convicting someone.  "Spectral evidence" is testimony by a victim that she had been visited by an image ("specter") of the accused, thereby suggesting the guilt of the accused.  This type of unreliable evidence is not allowed today.  Another flaw in the Puritans' legal system included a lack of a defense attorney for the accused, the allowance of "touching tests" as evidence, and the case did not have to be proven "beyond reasonable doubt," as it must be today.

City authorities prosecuted the suspects (mostly older women but also some men), and nearly two dozen were convicted and executed for the crime of witchcraft (nearly all of them women, but at least one man also).  Some thought that the trials offered an unique opportunity to identify and expose the devil for the advancement of knowledge.  But others observed that killing all these people may itself the work of the devil.  Finally one of the accused witches identified the wife of the governor as being a witch.  That alarmed the governor himself, obviously, and he intervened to order the exclusion of spectral evidence and touching tests as evidence against the accused, and that proof be based on a higher standard of "clear and convincing evidence."  Under these better legal standards, nearly everyone was acquitted (found "not guilty") and the governor pardoned the few who were still convicted.  Tituba herself, who sparked the panic, later recanted her "confession" but remained in jail another year until someone paid the jailer money to release her and her husband.  (Note that while a few Puritans did own slaves in early times, they did not split slave families.)  Many associated with the trials later apologized, but not the Chief Judge William Stoughton.  He always insisted that he was about to "clear the land" of witches and that the governor should not have intervened to prevent this; Stoughton subsequently became governor himself of the Massachusetts colony, showing the popularity of his position.

City authorities prosecuted the suspects (mostly older women but also some men), and nearly two dozen were convicted and executed for the crime of witchcraft (nearly all of them women, but at least one man too).  Some thought that the trials offered an unique opportunity to identify and expose the devil for the advancement of knowledge.  But others observed that killing all these people may itself the work of the devil.  Finally one of the accused witches identified the wife of the governor as being a witch.  That alarmed the governor himself, obviously, and he intervened to order the exclusion of spectral evidence and touching tests as evidence against the accused, and that proof be based on a higher standard of "clear and convincing evidence."  Under these better legal standards, nearly everyone was acquitted (found "not guilty") and the governor pardoned the few who were still convicted.  Tituba herself, who sparked the panic, later recanted her "confession" but remained in jail another year until someone paid the jailer money to release her and her husband.  (Note that while a few Puritans did own slaves in early times, they did not split slave families.)  Many associated with the trials later apologized, but not the Chief Judge William Stoughton.  He always insisted that he was about to "clear the land" of witches and that the governor should not have intervened to prevent this; Stoughton subsequently became governor himself of the Massachusetts colony, showing the popularity of his position.

This entire episode is taught today to embarrass the [[Puritan]]s and religious authority in general.  In 1850 a classic in American literature, ''The Scarlet Letter'', described life in Puritan Boston in the 1600s and criticized its strict adherence to morality and the occasional scandals that resulted.  Yet when that public morality was abandoned, Boston and Massachusetts became the most liberal areas in the nation, and today Massachusetts is one of the very few states that allows same-sex marriage.  Morally, Massachusetts is now directly opposite to what it was in the 1600s.

This entire episode is taught today to embarrass the [[Puritan]]s and religious authority in general.  In 1850 a classic in American literature, ''The Scarlet Letter'', described life in Puritan Boston in the 1600s and criticized its strict adherence to morality and the occasional scandals that resulted.  Yet when Puritanical morality was eventually abandoned centuries later, Boston and Massachusetts became the most liberal areas in the nation, and today Massachusetts is one of the very few states that allows same-sex marriage.  Morally, Massachusetts is now directly opposite of what it was in the 1600s.

Historians continue to debate what the real motivation for the Salem Witch trials was.  There is much evidence that money, not religion, was the driving force .  Nearly all of the accusers were from poorer farms, which nearly all of the accused were from the newer, richer, commercial class (such as a tavern owner).

Historians continue to debate what the real motivation for the Salem Witch trials was.  There is much evidence that money, not religion, was the driving force.  Nearly all of the accusers were from poorer farms, which nearly all of the accused were from the newer, richer, commercial class (such as a tavern owner mentioned earlier).

'''Debate:  Does the legal system or the Puritans -- or neither -- deserve blame for the Salem Witch Trials?'''

'''Debate:  Does the legal system or the Puritans -- or neither -- deserve blame for the Salem Witch Trials?'''

== The Zenger Trial ==

== The Zenger Trial ==

Freedom began to cause problems in the colony of New York when the governor disliked criticism that appeared in the newspaper.  [[John Peter Zenger]] printed something embarrassing about the governor, and the governor decided to silence him by charging him with "seditious libel."  He demanded that Zenger be prosecuted and thrown in jail for criticizing him.   

Freedom began to cause problems in the colony of New York when the governor disliked criticism that appeared in a newspaper.  [[John Peter Zenger]] printed something embarrassing about the governor, and the governor decided to silence him by charging him with "seditious libel."  He demanded that Zenger be prosecuted and thrown in jail for criticizing him.   

Zenger was then put on trial in 1735.  On the first day of the trial, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, one of the best known attorneys in colonies, surprisingly showed up and agreed to defend Zenger for free.  Hamilton argued that it should not be a crime to print something that is true, even though it may embarrass the governor.  In other words, Zenger's attorney thought that someone should have a right to tell the truth, no matter how embarrassing it may be. It also established that truth is a perfect defense against a charge of libel.

Zenger was then put on trial in 1735.  On the first day of the trial, Andrew Hamilton of Philadelphia, one of the best known attorneys in colonies, surprisingly showed up and agreed to defend Zenger for free.  Hamilton argued that it should not be a crime to print something that is true, even though it may embarrass the governor.  In other words, Zenger's attorney thought that someone should have a right to tell the truth, no matter how embarrassing it may be. It also established that truth is a perfect defense against a charge of libel.

This important case also helped convince Americans of the importance of the right to a jury trial, which was later written into our Constitution.

This important case also helped convince Americans of the importance of the right to a jury trial, which was later written into our Constitution.

The trial established one additional right: the power of the jury to ignore the law and hold in favor of a defendant even though the law says he is guilty.  This is known as "jury nullification," and it also exists to this day.  Juries may "nullify" the law to find a defendant "not guilty," but defense attorneys are not allowed to inform a jury of this power during a specific trial.  Jurors have to know it already, or decide to do it on their own, as the jury did in the Zenger case.

The trial established one additional right: the power of the jury to ignore the law and hold in favor of a defendant even though the law says he is guilty.  This is known as "jury nullification," and it also exists to this day.  Juries may "nullify" the law to find a defendant "not guilty," but defense attorneys are not allowed to inform a jury of this power during a specific trial.  Jurors can only decide to do it on their own, without suggestion by the defense attorney.

'''Debate: Do you think a jury should be able to ignore the law in order to find a defendant "not guilty?"'''

'''Debate: Do you think a jury should be able to ignore the law in order to find a defendant "not guilty?"'''

In the 1700s, the English colonies grew in size, reaching 2 million in population compared to only 100,000 in the French settlements.   

In the 1700s, the English colonies grew in size, reaching 2 million in population compared to only 100,000 in the French settlements.   

But note that the citizens of  the English colonies were not exclusively English.  Germans came here, African slaves came here involuntarily, and Scotch-Irish immigrated to the back country of the Middle Colonies and settled in Appalachia (where they remain a key voting bloc for the upcoming 2008 presidential election).  The Middle Colonies were New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, and consisted of many diverse ethnic groups and religions; prejudice existed between the groups but they were peaceful towards each other.  William Penn even ''advertised'' for immigrants to come to Pennsylvania.   

But note that the citizens of  the English colonies were not exclusively English.  Germans came here, African slaves came here involuntarily, and Scotch-Irish immigrated to the back country of the Middle Colonies and settled in Appalachia, where they remain a key voting bloc in support of the right to bear arms (own guns) today.  The Middle Colonies were New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware, and consisted of many diverse ethnic groups and religions; prejudice existed between the groups but they were peaceful towards each other.  William Penn even ''advertised'' for immigrants to come to Pennsylvania.   

In the 1730s and 1740s, a marvelous spiritual revival known as the "Great Awakening" swept the colonies.  A glorious [[Christian]] fervor spread throughout, helping to bring the colonies closer together in terms of beliefs, customs and practices.  Led by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, this was called "New Light" revivalism to distinguish it from the spiritualism of the 1600s.

In the 1730s and 1740s, a marvelous spiritual revival known as the "Great Awakening" swept the colonies.  A glorious [[Christian]] fervor spread throughout, helping to bring the colonies closer together in terms of beliefs, customs and practices.  Led by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield, this was called "New Light" revivalism to distinguish it from the spiritualism of the 1600s.