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The next convention -- the famous "Constitutional Convention" -- convened in the summer of 1787 (May through September) in Philadelphia to strengthen the national government by modifying the Articles of Confederation.  Note that its original goal was to fix the Articles of Confederation, not to replace them, but once at the convention the [[Founding Fathers]] decided to replace the Articles altogether.  '''''This Convention became one of the most important events in the entire history of mankind.'''''

The next convention -- the famous "Constitutional Convention" -- convened in the summer of 1787 (May through September) in Philadelphia to strengthen the national government by modifying the Articles of Confederation.  Note that its original goal was to fix the Articles of Confederation, not to replace them, but once at the convention the [[Founding Fathers]] decided to replace the Articles altogether.  '''''This Convention became one of the most important events in the entire history of mankind.'''''

Every state sent representatives except Rhode Island.  Some sources claim that Rhode Island's "[[separation of church and state]]" laid the foundation of the Constitution.  But Rhode Island didn't even show up at the Constitutional Convention!

Every state sent representatives except Rhode Island.  Some pretend that Rhode Island's "[[separation of church and state]]" laid the foundation of the Constitution, but Rhode Island didn't even show up at the Constitutional Convention!

In total, 55 delegates -- roughly the same size as our class -- attended from twelve states.  The highest attendance and participation at the Constitutional Convention came from large states, particularly Virginia, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and South Carolina.

In total, 55 delegates attended from twelve states.  The highest attendance and participation at the Constitutional Convention came from large states, particularly Virginia, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and South Carolina.

Key participants in the Constitutional Convention were James Madison, George Washington, [[Alexander Hamilton]] and Benjamin Franklin.  [[John Adams]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] did not attend because they were overseas in diplomatic missions; Adams was in England and Jefferson was in France.  Remember the alliances suggested by their diplomatic efforts:  Adams (and all of New England) was allied with England, while Jefferson (and much of Virginia) was allied with France.

Key participants in the Constitutional Convention were James Madison, George Washington, [[Alexander Hamilton]] and Benjamin Franklin.  [[John Adams]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] did not attend because they were overseas in diplomatic missions; Adams was in England and Jefferson was in France.  Remember the alliances suggested by their diplomatic efforts:  Adams (and all of New England) was allied with England, while Jefferson (and much of Virginia) was allied with France.

[[George Washington]] reluctantly agreed to attend the convention, and was elected to preside.  In another display of his remarkable self-restraint, Washington did not speak on the issues, because he felt this would be unsuitable for the chairman.

[[George Washington]] reluctantly agreed to attend the convention, and was elected to preside.  In another display of his remarkable self-restraint, Washington did not speak on the issues, because he wanted to remain impartial as the Chairman.

[[Benjamin Franklin]] was the oldest attendee, at 82.  He had to be carried to the meetings in a chair and wrote out his remarks so that others could speak for him.  Nevertheless, his influence on the Convention was invaluable.

[[Benjamin Franklin]] was the oldest attendee, at 82.  He had to be carried to the meetings in a chair and wrote out his remarks so that others could speak for him.  Nevertheless, his presence at the Convention was inspiring.

[[James Madison]] took copious notes during the deliberations and was a tireless worker.  All of his proposals were rejected, but he received the misnomer of "Father of the Constitution" because most of the information of the proceedings comes from his notes.

[[James Madison]] took copious notes during the deliberations and was a tireless worker.  All of his proposals were rejected, but he received the misnomer of "Father of the Constitution" because most of the information of the proceedings comes from his notes.

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention were bright, dedicated, and spiritual men.  This was a very special event.

The delegates to the Constitutional Convention were bright, dedicated, and spiritual men.  This was a very special event.

The delegates decided that secrecy should govern their deliberations, without any news leaking to reporters and the public.  This secrecy benefited the Convention because the delegates could proceed freely and try different ideas without fearing that their actions would be misunderstood by the public.  Everyone was ordered to destroy their notes after the convention.  James Madison, however, kept his and they were released when he died fifty years later, providing most of our current knowledge about it.  

The delegates decided that secrecy should govern their deliberations, without any news leaking to reporters and the public.  This secrecy benefited the Convention because the delegates could speak freely and try different ideas without fearing that their actions would be misunderstood by the public.  Everyone was ordered to destroy their notes after the convention.  James Madison, however, kept his and they were released when he died fifty years later, providing most of our detailed knowledge about it today.  

'''Debate:  Should deliberations to change the government proceed in secrecy, without public scrutiny?'''

'''Debate:  Should deliberations to change the government proceed in secrecy, without public scrutiny?'''

The Constitutional Convention was governed by strict rules.  For example, "Every member rising to speak, shall address the President; and whilst he shall be speaking, none shall pass between them or hold discourse with another, or read a book, pamphlet or paper."  Nothing was to be considered final until the entire Constitution had been written.  Each state received one vote.

The Constitutional Convention was governed by strict rules.  For example, "Every member rising to speak, shall address the President; and whilst he shall be speaking, none shall pass between them or hold discourse with another, or read a book, pamphlet or paper."  There were no teleprompters then! Nothing was to be considered final until the entire Constitution had been written.  Each state received one vote.

While most delegates agreed that stronger central government was necessary, they were uncertain how they could accomplish this without creating too much centralized power.  Their fear of the corruption that power brings reflects the Christian beginnings of our nation.  Christianity teaches that humans are sinful and prone to corruption.  Very few other religions teach that.

While most delegates agreed that stronger central government was necessary, they were uncertain how they could accomplish this without creating too much centralized power.  Their fear of the corruption that power brings reflects the Christian beginnings of our nation.  Christianity teaches that humans are sinful and prone to corruption.  Very few other religions teach that.

As the Constitutional Convention began, the delegates agreed that the Articles of Confederation had not created a functional government.  Congress was in shambles, and attendance in Congress was so sporadic that between October 1785 and April 1786 it had the minimum attendance required to business (a "[[quorum]]") on only three days.  The stated purpose of the Constitutional Convention was to "render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union."

As the Constitutional Convention began, the delegates agreed that the Articles of Confederation had not created a functional government.  Congress was in shambles, and attendance in Congress was so sporadic that between October 1785 and April 1786 it had the minimum required attendance to conduct business (a "[[quorum]]") on only three days.  The stated purpose of the Constitutional Convention was to "render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union."

Those words left the Convention somewhat open in terms of its goal.  Delegates had a choice.  First, they could amend the Articles, but this would be very difficult because unanimous approval from the states was required.  Instead, they could draft a new constitution.  Some questioned whether the Convention had authority to do this, but consensus was that a new constitution was the only choice.

Those words left the Convention somewhat open in terms of its goal.  Delegates had a choice.  First, they could amend the Articles, but this would be very difficult because unanimous approval from the states was required.  Instead, they could draft a new constitution.  Some questioned whether the Convention had authority to do this, but consensus was that a new constitution was the only choice.

The attendees thereby did not limit their actions to fixing the Articles of Confederation.  This same debate rages today by calls for a constitutional convention to balance the budget (1980s) or, more recently, to protect traditional marriage.  There is no way to limit what a constitutional convention does.  This debate over whether a constitutional convention can be limited to a particular issue (e.g., saving traditional marriage) continues today, with many saying that there is never a way to limit a constitutional convention.  The only real protection from a convention exceeding its scope is that its proposal must still be ratified by the states.

The attendees thereby did not limit their actions to fixing the Articles of Confederation.  This same debate rages today by calls for a constitutional convention.  There is no way to limit what a constitutional convention does.  This debate over whether a constitutional convention can be limited to a particular issue (e.g., requiring a balanced budget by the national government) continues today, with many saying that there is never a way to limit a constitutional convention.  The only real protection from a convention exceeding its scope is that its proposal must still be ratified by the states.

'''Debate:  Was it proper for the delegates to go beyond their authority to amend the Articles of Confederation, and instead propose a new constitution?

'''Debate:  Was it proper for the delegates to go beyond their authority to amend the Articles of Confederation, and instead propose a new constitution?

In June 1787, William Paterson next proposed the [[New Jersey Plan]], which was more favorable to the small states and which departed less from the Articles of Confederation.  This plan was favored by small states because each state was represented equally in Congress.  This allowed small states to have an equal amount of power.  The Virginia plan, in contrast, would have allowed large states much more power than small ones because representation in Congress was based on population.

In June 1787, William Paterson next proposed the [[New Jersey Plan]], which was more favorable to the small states and which departed less from the Articles of Confederation.  This plan was favored by small states because each state was represented equally in Congress.  This allowed small states to have an equal amount of power.  The Virginia plan, in contrast, would have allowed large states much more power than small ones because representation in Congress was based on population.

This conflict between the big and small states may have been the most difficult to resolve in the entire Convention.  For weeks there was no progress.  Then Benjamin Franklin proposed that each day be opened by prayer.  He said, "In the beginning of the Contest with Great Britain when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the divine protection. - Our prayers, Sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered.... And have we now forgotten that powerful friend?  or do we imagine that we no longer need His assistance?  I have lived, Sir a long time, and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth - that God Governs in the affairs of men.  And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without His notice, is it probably that an empire can rise without His aid?"  But the delegates felt a minister was needed for that, and they could not afford one!

This conflict between the big and small states may have been the most difficult to resolve in the entire Convention.  For weeks there was no progress.  Then Benjamin Franklin proposed that each day be opened by prayer.  He said, "In the beginning of the Contest with Great Britain when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the divine protection. - Our prayers, Sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered.... And have we now forgotten that powerful friend?  or do we imagine that we no longer need His assistance?  I have lived, Sir a long time, and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth - that God Governs in the affairs of men.  And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without His notice, is it probably that an empire can rise without His aid?"  But the delegates felt a minister was needed for that, and they could not afford to hire one!

After many weeks of arguments, a compromise was reached.  In July 1787, Connecticut delegate Roger Sherman proposed the Connecticut Plan, in which representation in the House would be proportional to population, and representation in the Senate would be 1 vote per state.  '''''This became the Great Compromise or the [[Connecticut Compromise]], and it resolved that Congress would have one house with equal representation and one house with representation based on population'''''.  This compromise became part of the Constitution (with the change that there would be two votes per state), and today we have both the House of Representatives and the Senate.

After many weeks of arguments, a compromise was reached.  In July 1787, Connecticut delegate Roger Sherman proposed the Connecticut Plan, in which representation in the House would be proportional to population, and representation in the Senate would be 1 vote per state.  '''''This became the Great Compromise or the [[Connecticut Compromise]], and it resolved that Congress would have one house with equal representation and one house with representation based on population'''''.  This compromise became part of the Constitution (with the change that there would be two votes per state), and today we have both the House of Representatives and the Senate.

:Article VII establishes the procedure for ratifying the Constitution.

:Article VII establishes the procedure for ratifying the Constitution.

The Constitution itself (before passage of the Bill of Rights adding the first ten amendments) contains several important protections of individual rights, including a right to a jury trial and a prohibition on any bill of attainder, which was a practice in England whereby the legislature would punish an individual by naming him in legislation.  Under the Constitution, only courts can punish individual citizens.

The Constitution itself (before passage of the Bill of Rights adding the first ten amendments) contains several important protections of individual rights, including a right to a jury trial and a prohibition on any bill of attainder, which was a practice in England whereby the legislature would punish an individual by expressly and specifically naming him in legislation.  Under the Constitution, only courts can punish individual citizens.

Every state except Rhode Island held a ratifying convention to consider adopting it.  Many small states ratified the Constitution quickly (the first state to ratify it was Delaware), because they liked the idea of having equal representation in the Senate.  But bigger states, such as [[Virginia]] and [[New York]], were more reluctant to give up their power to a national government.

Every state except Rhode Island held a ratifying convention to consider adopting it.  Many small states ratified the Constitution quickly (the first state to ratify it was Delaware), because they liked the idea of having equal representation in the Senate.  But bigger states, such as [[Virginia]] and [[New York]], were more reluctant to give up their power to a national government.

'''Debate:  Is [[homeschooling]] protected by the Bill of Rights?  Should it be?'''

'''Debate:  Is [[homeschooling]] protected by the Bill of Rights?  Should it be?'''

==George Washington's Presidency==

==George Washington's Presidency==