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An '''Industrial Revolution''' refers to the widespread creation of new industries in a country, and more generally to the radical transformation of as economy from farming to manufacturing. The most famous industrial revolution occurred in western Europe, especially England and Scotland, 1750s to 1830s.  The U.S. experienced its industrial revolution in the early 19th century; Germany in the late 19th century; Russia in the mid 20th century; China and India in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Third world countries have not (yet) experienced their industrial revolution. [[Image:Frader.jpg|thumb|250px]]

An '''Industrial Revolution''' refers to the widespread creation of new industries in a country, and more generally to the radical transformation of as economy from farming to manufacturing. The most famous industrial revolution occurred in western Europe, especially England and Scotland, 1750s to 1830s.  The U.S. experienced its industrial revolution in the early 19th century; Germany in the late 19th century; Russia in the mid 20th century; China and India in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Third world countries have not (yet) experienced their industrial revolution. [[Image:Frader.jpg|thumb|250px]]

==Britain==

==Britain==

 

The '''Industrial Revolution''' was a period of economic transformation in Britain from the  1750s to the 1830s, characterized by the growth of a new system comprising factories, railroads, coal mining and business enterprises using new technologies that it sponsored.  The new system operated first on textiles, then spread to other sectors and by the mid 19th century totally transformed the British economy and society, setting up sustained growth; it spread to parts of America and Europe and modernized the world economy.  Although localized to certain parts of Britain (the London area was not included), its impact was felt worldwide on migration and trade, society and politics, on cities and countryside, and affected the remotest areas.  The growth rate in the British GDP was 1.5% per year (1770-1815), doubling to 3.0% (1815-1831).<ref> Berg (1994) p 15, following estimates by C.H. Feinstein, "National Statistics, 1760-1920", in C.H. Feinstein and S. Pollard, (eds.), ''Studies in Capital Formation in the United Kingdom, 1750-1920'' (1988) table X.</ref>

The '''Industrial Revolution''' was a period of economic transformation in Britain from the  1750s to the 1830s, characterized by the growth of a new system comprising factories, railroads, coal mining and business enterprises using new technologies that it sponsored.  The new system operated first on textiles, then spread to other sectors and by the mid 19th century totally transformed the British economy and society, setting up sustained growth; it spread to parts of America and Europe and modernized the world economy.  Although localized to certain parts of Britain (the London area was not included), its impact was felt worldwide on migration and trade, society and politics, on cities and countryside, and affected the remotest areas.  The growth rate in the British GDP was 1.5% per year (1770-1815), doubling to 3.0% (1815-1831).<ref> Berg (1994) p 15, following estimates by C.H. Feinstein, "National Statistics, 1760-1920", in C.H. Feinstein and S. Pollard, (eds.), ''Studies in Capital Formation in the United Kingdom, 1750-1920'' (1988) table X.</ref>

In 1831, the Glasgow area, with a population of 200,000, operated 328 steam-engines. Sixty were on steamboats; the largest steamboat was only 387 tons and it had two engines, each of 110 horse-power. The other engines were used in the 107  

In 1831, the Glasgow area, with a population of 200,000, operated 328 steam-engines. Sixty were on steamboats; the largest steamboat was only 387 tons and it had two engines, each of 110 horse-power. The other engines were used in the 107  

cotton mills, many of which contained several. The average engine had a 26 horse-power output. Other industries were just starting to use the new engines.<ref> Clapham 1:156</ref>  

cotton mills, many of which contained several. The average engine had a 26 horse-power output. Other industries were just starting to use the new engines.<ref> Clapham 1:156</ref>  

==Textiles==

==Textiles==

The United States followed the British lead, using stolen blueprints and illegally immigrating engineers. Samuel Slater (1768-1835) of Rhode Island pulled American cotton-spinning technology by constructing carding, drawing, and roving machinery, and by determining the operating and gearing ratios necessary to use water power. By 1850 the American had built their own industrial revolutions around textiles, and use of abundant water power in new England.

The United States followed the British lead, using stolen blueprints and illegally immigrating engineers. Samuel Slater (1768-1835) of Rhode Island pulled American cotton-spinning technology by constructing carding, drawing, and roving machinery, and by determining the operating and gearing ratios necessary to use water power. By 1850 the American had built their own industrial revolutions around textiles, and use of abundant water power in new England.

==Railways==

==Railways==

see [[Railway History]]

See [[Railway History]]

The growth of industry soon brought to light the need for a better system of transportation. While canals and roads did improve, they were soon overshadowed by a means of transportation that held great promise: the railroads. The railroads may have been that most important factor of the industrial revolution. Railways had existed as early as 1500, but in 1700s the primitive wooden rails were replaced with wrought iron. These new rails enabled horses to pull even heavier loads with relative ease. But dependence on horsepower did not last for long. In 1804 the first steam-powered locomotive pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour. This new technology improved dramatically; locomotives reached speeds of 50 miles per hour! While the railroads revolutionized transportation, they further contributed to the growth of the industrial revolution by causing a great increase in the demand for iron and coal.  

The growth of industry soon brought to light the need for a better system of transportation. While canals and roads did improve, they were soon overshadowed by a means of transportation that held great promise: the railroads. The railroads may have been that most important factor of the industrial revolution. Railways had existed as early as 1500, but in 1700s the primitive wooden rails were replaced with wrought iron. These new rails enabled horses to pull even heavier loads with relative ease. But dependence on horsepower did not last for long. In 1804 the first steam-powered locomotive pulled 10 tons of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour. This new technology improved dramatically; locomotives reached speeds of 50 miles per hour! While the railroads revolutionized transportation, they further contributed to the growth of the industrial revolution by causing a great increase in the demand for iron and coal.  

see [[Coal Mining: History]]

see [[Coal Mining: History]]

The fuel problem was severe. Wood was scarce--the forests were gone.  Water power required fast-flowing rivers of the sort that were abundant in America but uncommon in Europe.  Horses could be used, but the efficient solution was fueling steam engines with coal, of which the island had an abundance. Before 1750 miners worked in shallow digs with few safety devices; floods, cave-ins, and gas explosions were omnipresent threats. Productivity was low. Even before Sir Humphry Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815 ways were found to detect the presence of choke damp, carbon monoxide, and coal dust; ventilation of mines was improved; systems of siphoning and continuous pumping were installed to rid the mines of water; and improved methods were introduced for sinking shafts. An early use of steam engines was to pump water out of the mines; the first locomotives pulled cars of coal out of the shafts. In 1700 2.5 millions tons of coal were mined; in 1800 10 million tons; in 1861 57 million tons.<ref> Nef (1932); A Robert Lindsay Galloway, ''A history of coal mining in Great Britain'' (1882) [http://books.google.com/books?id=2DsDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:coal&num=30&as_brr=1#PPP1,M1 online edition]</ref>

The fuel problem was severe. Wood was scarce--the forests were gone.  Water power required fast-flowing rivers of the sort that were abundant in America but uncommon in Europe.  Horses could be used, but the efficient solution was fueling steam engines with coal, of which the island had an abundance. Before 1750 miners worked in shallow digs with few safety devices; floods, cave-ins, and gas explosions were omnipresent threats. Productivity was low. Even before Sir Humphry Davy invented the safety lamp in 1815 ways were found to detect the presence of choke damp, carbon monoxide, and coal dust; ventilation of mines was improved; systems of siphoning and continuous pumping were installed to rid the mines of water; and improved methods were introduced for sinking shafts. An early use of steam engines was to pump water out of the mines; the first locomotives pulled cars of coal out of the shafts. In 1700 2.5 millions tons of coal were mined; in 1800 10 million tons; in 1861 57 million tons.<ref> Nef (1932); A Robert Lindsay Galloway, ''A history of coal mining in Great Britain'' (1882) [http://books.google.com/books?id=2DsDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=intitle:coal&num=30&as_brr=1#PPP1,M1 online edition]</ref>

==Iron and steel==

==Iron and steel==

The technological innovations of the Industrial Revolution came many decades before their impact on society was visible. An early response was mob attacks on textile mills from "Luddites", who were opposed to the mechanised system which brought unemployment to those involved in hand-spinning. Lancashire mills, particularly, incurred trouble and many were destroyed by fire.<ref> Frank Peel, ''The Risings of the Luddites, Chartists & Plugdrawers'' (1888) [http://books.google.com/books?id=22nbOVVO4WsC&pg=PA9&dq=intitle:luddites&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]</ref>  Historians of the emergence of a working class consciousness however point the 1830s and 1840s, and study complex causes, such as the demand for greater participation in society and politics sparked by the Napoleonic wars and the rise of Methodism. Major demographic changes became visible starting in the 1840s.<ref> Berg and Hudson, (1992)</ref>

The technological innovations of the Industrial Revolution came many decades before their impact on society was visible. An early response was mob attacks on textile mills from "Luddites", who were opposed to the mechanised system which brought unemployment to those involved in hand-spinning. Lancashire mills, particularly, incurred trouble and many were destroyed by fire.<ref> Frank Peel, ''The Risings of the Luddites, Chartists & Plugdrawers'' (1888) [http://books.google.com/books?id=22nbOVVO4WsC&pg=PA9&dq=intitle:luddites&num=30&as_brr=1 online edition]</ref>  Historians of the emergence of a working class consciousness however point the 1830s and 1840s, and study complex causes, such as the demand for greater participation in society and politics sparked by the Napoleonic wars and the rise of Methodism. Major demographic changes became visible starting in the 1840s.<ref> Berg and Hudson, (1992)</ref>

===Standard of living===

===Standard of living===

In general industrial workers who were employed did better than farm laborers, and thus the heavy movement from farm to city.  Unemployed workers, however, were better off back on the farm where their families were motre likely to provide food and housing for them, and there was always a some farm work to do.

In general industrial workers who were employed did better than farm laborers, and thus the heavy movement from farm to city.  Unemployed workers, however, were better off back on the farm where their families were motre likely to provide food and housing for them, and there was always a some farm work to do.

==Japan==

==Japan==

Japan was the first Asian nation to undergo an industrial revoltion. Sponsored by the state from the 1860s, it copied European models, bringing in machinery and experts. The agrarian sector was capable of feeding the growing population, and provided a steady stream of workers to the fast growing industrial cities. Japan's industrialization grew rapidly after 1890, stimulated primarily by internal demand, and financed primarily by internal capital.  It first developed a large textile industry. It had some coal and increased its production, but demand outran supply, so overall Japan became an importer of coal. It imported iron ore from China.<ref> William W. Lockwood, ''The Economic Development of Japan: Growth and Structural Change, 1868-1938'' (1954)</ref>

Japan was the first Asian nation to undergo an industrial revoltion. Sponsored by the state from the 1860s, it copied European models, bringing in machinery and experts. The agrarian sector was capable of feeding the growing population, and provided a steady stream of workers to the fast growing industrial cities. Japan's industrialization grew rapidly after 1890, stimulated primarily by internal demand, and financed primarily by internal capital.  It first developed a large textile industry. It had some coal and increased its production, but demand outran supply, so overall Japan became an importer of coal. It imported iron ore from China.<ref> William W. Lockwood, ''The Economic Development of Japan: Growth and Structural Change, 1868-1938'' (1954)</ref>

The measures of productivity over the period show major transitions in the manufacture of textiles; the consumption of coal; and the production of iron goods.  Coupled with these are the movement of the population from rural to urban environments; and the rapid development and use of turnpikes, canals, railways, steamships and the telegraph.  Above all it was the invention by entrepreneurs of the '''factory''' as a complex social-economic system that combined financing, engineering, raw materials, transportation and supervised workers as they made a profitable product whose sale in turned fed the expansion of the system.

The measures of productivity over the period show major transitions in the manufacture of textiles; the consumption of coal; and the production of iron goods.  Coupled with these are the movement of the population from rural to urban environments; and the rapid development and use of turnpikes, canals, railways, steamships and the telegraph.  Above all it was the invention by entrepreneurs of the '''factory''' as a complex social-economic system that combined financing, engineering, raw materials, transportation and supervised workers as they made a profitable product whose sale in turned fed the expansion of the system.

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

===Britain and world===

===Britain and world===

* Ashton, T. S.  ''The Industrial Revolution, 1760-1830'' (1948)[http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-industrial-revolution-1760-1830-by-t-s-ashton.jsp online edition]

* Ashton, T. S.  ''The Industrial Revolution, 1760-1830'' (1948)[http://www.questia.com/library/book/the-industrial-revolution-1760-1830-by-t-s-ashton.jsp online edition]

* Taylor, A. J. P. (ed.) ''The Standard of Living in Britain in the Industrial Revolution,'' 1975,

* Taylor, A. J. P. (ed.) ''The Standard of Living in Britain in the Industrial Revolution,'' 1975,

* Wrigley, E. A. ''Continuity, Chance, and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England.'' 1988.  

* Wrigley, E. A. ''Continuity, Chance, and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England.'' 1988.  

===United States===

===United States===

* Clark, Victor S.  ''History of Manufactures in the United States: 1607-1860'' (1916) [http://books.google.com/books?id=x-EMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:manufactures+inauthor:clark&num=30&sig=-8RXQtpVElAoyDY2eN5J31hyBrM#PPP11,M1 online at books.google.com]

* Clark, Victor S.  ''History of Manufactures in the United States: 1607-1860'' (1916) [http://books.google.com/books?id=x-EMAAAAIAAJ&printsec=toc&dq=intitle:manufactures+inauthor:clark&num=30&sig=-8RXQtpVElAoyDY2eN5J31hyBrM#PPP11,M1 online at books.google.com]

* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html excerpts from primary sources in ''Internet Modern History Sourcebook'']

* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html excerpts from primary sources in ''Internet Modern History Sourcebook'']

* [http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/ ''The Steam Engine Library''] several primary sources.  

* [http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/ ''The Steam Engine Library''] several primary sources.