Changes

===Schools===

===Schools===

Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education."  ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in  Jstor]]</ref>

Benjamin C. Willis was superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools (1953 - 1966). During his tenure, the public schools in Chicago, as in many large cities, declined in terms of both the quality of the education they provided and the quantity of resources they received. Willis saw educational leadership as the work of professionals, not of community activists or political leaders. This outlook isolated his administration and undermined his influence. In the 1970s, efforts to desegregate schools through busing led to an exodus of whites from the city. <ref> John L. Rury, "Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago's Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education."  ''History of Education Quarterly'' 1999 39(2): 117-142. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(199922)39%3A2%3C117%3ARSATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4 in  Jstor]]</ref>

 

As a politician and as Chicago's black mayor (1983-87), [[Harold Washington]] maintained a distinctive strategy toward reform of public schools.<ref> Jim Carl, "Harold Washington and Chicago's Schools Between Civil Rights and the Decline of the New Deal Consensus, 1955-1987." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2001 41(3): 311-343. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(200123)41%3A3%3C311%3AHWACSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in  Jstor]]</ref> Rather than focus on integration (bringing whites and minorities into the same schools), Washington favored measures to strengthen local schools, especially in minority neighborhoods. He called for more state support to urban schools in place of property taxes and more power to local groups to influence curriculum and the quality of teaching. In 1987 the teacher strike transformed educational problems into a crisis. Washington created the Parent Community Council from local groups and arranged for a summit with their representatives and those of business, school administration, and teachers. His death in 1987 unraveled the deliberations for change that had been taking place.  The schoold were so beset by violence, teacher shortages and inadequate financing that few Few disagreed with the brutal verdict of U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] in 1987, "Chicago's public schools are the worst in the nation." In the late 1990s, the realization that busing had become unrealistic caused Chicago's political leaders and community activists to join together in focusing attention and resources on improving neighborhood schools. Mayor Richard M. Daley seized control of the school system in 1995 and promised drastic reforms. However, the legislature largely left in place elected councils made up of parents and community members at each of the district's nearly 600 schools. At struggling schools on probation, Daley has stripped councils of power, but at others the councils hire principals and oversee a significant portion of each school's budget. Paul G. Vallas, a blunt-talking, bottom-line-driven manager led the system from 1995 to 2001. Vallas presided over a $3 billion construction effort that built 71 schools and renovated 500. He cut 2,000 nonteaching positions and stabilized the district's finances. Given broad executive authority, Vallas ended automatic promotion from grade to grade and greatly expanded summer school, policies that have been copied across the country. Math and reading scores improved, with about 40% of students at grade level in 2001, up from 30% in 1995. <ref>  See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDB1E3FF934A35755C0A9679C8B63 Jodi Wilgoren, "Chief Executive of Chicago Schools Resigns," ''New York Times'' June 7, 2001]</ref>  In 2001 Daley appointed Arne Duncan, 36, to preside over a school system with 435,000 students, 45,900 employees and a $3.5-billion annual budget. In 2009 Duncan, hailed for his work in Chicago, became Secretary of Education for the [[Obama Administration]].

As a politician and as Chicago's black mayor (1983-87), [[Harold Washington]] maintained a distinctive strategy toward reform of public schools.<ref> Jim Carl, "Harold Washington and Chicago's Schools Between Civil Rights and the Decline of the New Deal Consensus, 1955-1987." ''History of Education Quarterly'' 2001 41(3): 311-343. Issn: 0018-2680 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0018-2680(200123)41%3A3%3C311%3AHWACSB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5 in  Jstor]]</ref> Rather than focus on integration (bringing whites and minorities into the same schools), Washington favored measures to strengthen local schools, especially in minority neighborhoods. He called for more state support to urban schools in place of property taxes and more power to local groups to influence curriculum and the quality of teaching. In 1987 the teacher strike transformed educational problems into a crisis. Washington created the Parent Community Council from local groups and arranged for a summit with their representatives and those of business, school administration, and teachers. His death in 1987 unraveled the deliberations for change that had been taking place.  The schoold were so beset by violence, teacher shortages and inadequate financing that few Few disagreed with the brutal verdict of U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] in 1987, "Chicago's public schools are the worst in the nation." In the late 1990s, the realization that busing had become unrealistic caused Chicago's political leaders and community activists to join together in focusing attention and resources on improving neighborhood schools. Mayor Richard M. Daley seized control of the school system in 1995 and promised drastic reforms. However, the legislature largely left in place elected councils made up of parents and community members at each of the district's nearly 600 schools. At struggling schools on probation, Daley has stripped councils of power, but at others the councils hire principals and oversee a significant portion of each school's budget. Paul G. Vallas, a blunt-talking, bottom-line-driven manager led the system from 1995 to 2001. Vallas presided over a $3 billion construction effort that built 71 schools and renovated 500. He cut 2,000 nonteaching positions and stabilized the district's finances. Given broad executive authority, Vallas ended automatic promotion from grade to grade and greatly expanded summer school, policies that have been copied across the country. Math and reading scores improved, with about 40% of students at grade level in 2001, up from 30% in 1995. <ref>  See [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9905EFDB1E3FF934A35755C0A9679C8B63 Jodi Wilgoren, "Chief Executive of Chicago Schools Resigns," ''New York Times'' June 7, 2001]</ref>  In 2001 Daley appointed Arne Duncan, 36, to preside over a school system with 435,000 students, 45,900 employees and a $3.5-billion annual budget. In 2009 Duncan, hailed for his work in Chicago, became Secretary of Education for the [[Obama Administration]].