Changes

Sons of a Christian minister, the Wright boys lost their mother to an illness while they were teenagers.  Orville, the younger of the boys, dropped out of high school to start a printing business, which he turned into a newspaper with the help of his brother Wilbur.  But the competition from larger newspapers was too great, and their business went back to only printing.

Sons of a Christian minister, the Wright boys lost their mother to an illness while they were teenagers.  Orville, the younger of the boys, dropped out of high school to start a printing business, which he turned into a newspaper with the help of his brother Wilbur.  But the competition from larger newspapers was too great, and their business went back to only printing.

A bicycle craze hit the nation in the 1890s, and the Wrights started making and selling bicycles.  Then they began to focus on designing a bicycle-powered airplane:<ref>http://www.first-to-fly.com/History/Wright%20Story/wright%20story.htm</ref>

A bicycle craze hit our nation in the 1890s, and the Wrights started making and selling bicycles.  Then they began to focus on designing a bicycle-powered airplane:<ref>http://www.first-to-fly.com/History/Wright%20Story/wright%20story.htm</ref>

:In 1896, the newspapers were filled with accounts of flying machines. Wilbur and Orville noticed that all these primitive aircraft lacked suitable controls. They began to wonder how a pilot might balance an aircraft in the air, just as a cyclist balances his bicycle on the road. In 1899, Wilbur devised a simple system that twisted or "warped" the wings of a biplane, causing it to roll right or left. They tested this system in a kite, then a series of gliders. ... [D]uring the winter of 1901-1902 Wilbur and Orville built a wind tunnel and conducted experiments to determine the best wing shape for an airplane. ... Toward the end of the 1902 flying season, their third glider became the first fully controllable aircraft, with roll, pitch, and yaw controls.  During the winter of 1902-1903, with the help of their mechanic, Charlie Taylor, the Wrights designed and built a gasoline engine light enough and powerful enough to propel an airplane.

:In 1896, the newspapers were filled with accounts of flying machines. Wilbur and Orville noticed that all these primitive aircraft lacked suitable controls. They began to wonder how a pilot might balance an aircraft in the air, just as a cyclist balances his bicycle on the road. In 1899, Wilbur devised a simple system that twisted or "warped" the wings of a biplane, causing it to roll right or left. They tested this system in a kite, then a series of gliders. ... [D]uring the winter of 1901-1902 Wilbur and Orville built a wind tunnel and conducted experiments to determine the best wing shape for an airplane. ... Toward the end of the 1902 flying season, their third glider became the first fully controllable aircraft, with roll, pitch, and yaw controls.  During the winter of 1902-1903, with the help of their mechanic, Charlie Taylor, the Wrights designed and built a gasoline engine light enough and powerful enough to propel an airplane.

Roosevelt's greatest accomplishment was the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, a treaty with Panama which granted to the United States a five-mile wide tract of land to build the Panama Canal, for a fee of $10 million plus $250,000 per year.

Roosevelt's greatest accomplishment was the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903, a treaty with Panama which granted to the United States a five-mile wide tract of land to build the Panama Canal, for a fee of $10 million plus $250,000 per year.

The reason Roosevelt is one of four faces on Mount Rushmore (the other three are Washington, Jefferson and Lincoln) is because he established the national park system to conserve the treasures of the nation's natural resources (Roosevelt was a "conservationist").  He was a big hiker and lover of the outdoors himself, even taking ambassadors from other countries on hikes in D.C. when they visited.  After his second term ended in 1909, Roosevelt went on a safari in Africa.  He declared that he felt as fit as a bull moose, and then named a new party that he started in 1912 the "Bull Moose Party."  That political party was Teddy Roosevelt and little more, and disappeared quickly after he lost that election.

The reason Roosevelt is one of four faces on Mount Rushmore (the other three are Washington, Jefferson and Lincoln) is because he established the national park system to conserve the treasures of our nation's natural resources (Roosevelt was a "conservationist").  He was a big hiker and lover of the outdoors himself, even taking ambassadors from other countries on hikes in D.C. when they visited.  After his second term ended in 1909, Roosevelt went on a safari in Africa.  He declared that he felt as fit as a bull moose, and then named a new party that he started in 1912 the "Bull Moose Party."  That political party was Teddy Roosevelt and little more, and disappeared quickly after he lost that election.

Roosevelt enjoyed support in newspapers, particularly among "muckrakers".  Muckrakers were journalists who sensationalized bad aspects of big business and machine politics.  Whenever Roosevelt "took on" big business, he was glorified in the papers and he probably enjoyed that.

Roosevelt enjoyed support in newspapers, particularly among "muckrakers".  Muckrakers were journalists who sensationalized bad aspects of big business and machine politics.  Whenever Roosevelt "took on" big business, he was glorified in the papers and he probably enjoyed that.

== Social trends and Court decisions ==

== Social trends and Court decisions ==

Americans were migrating to cities in large numbers in the late 1800s, transforming the nation from a predominantly farming society into an urban one.  Between 1870 and 1920, the population of Americans living in cities increased over five-fold, from 10 million in 1870 to 54 million in 1920.  Cities having more than 500,000 people increased from 2 to 12; cities having over 100,000 residents grew from 15 to 68; and for the first time (in 1920) more than half the American population lived in communities having more than 2,500 people.  Part of this influx was due to the "New Immigration," when 26 million Europeans came to the United States prior to the curtailing of immigration in 1924.  The "New Immigration" was more from southern and eastern Europe, which was more Catholic and Jewish, rather than from the more Protestant northern Europe as before.  A decline in the profitability of farming also led to migration to cities, as the children of farmers looked for better work and income in urban areas.

Americans were migrating to cities in large numbers in the late 1800s, transforming our nation from a predominantly farming society into an urban one.  Between 1870 and 1920, the population of Americans living in cities increased over five-fold, from 10 million in 1870 to 54 million in 1920.  Cities having more than 500,000 people increased from 2 to 12; cities having over 100,000 residents grew from 15 to 68; and for the first time (in 1920) more than half the American population lived in communities having more than 2,500 people.  Part of this influx was due to the "New Immigration," when 26 million Europeans came to the United States '''''prior to the curtailing of immigration in 1924'''''.  The "New Immigration" was more from southern and eastern Europe, which was more Catholic and Jewish, rather than from the more Protestant northern Europe as before.  A decline in the profitability of farming also led to migration to cities, as the children of farmers looked for better work and income in urban areas.

In 1890, Jacob Riis wrote an influential book entitled "How the Other Half Lives," which depicted overcrowded areas in cities and how that resulted in gangs and murders.  Racial discrimination became a problem also, and in 1916 the private Urban League was formed with the goal of eliminating discrimination in large cities and supporting social work there.

In 1890, Jacob Riis wrote an influential book entitled "How the Other Half Lives," which depicted overcrowded areas in cities and how that resulted in gangs and murders.  Racial discrimination became a problem also, and in 1916 the private Urban League was formed with the goal of eliminating discrimination in large cities and supporting social work there.

But farmers remained politically powerful, more so than they are today, and Congress passed laws to address the plight of farmers.  The Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 provided for the establishment of Boards to provide loans to farmers and ranchers.  It was expanded later to include assistance to the buyers of homes.   

But farmers remained politically powerful, more so than they are today, and Congress passed laws to address their hardships.  The Federal Farm Loan Act of 1916 provided for the establishment of Boards to provide loans to farmers and ranchers.  It was expanded later to include assistance to the buyers of homes.   

In 1903, the Women's Trade Union League was founded to unionize women workers,  because they had been excluded from the large (men's) American Federation of Labor (AFL) at its union meeting in Boston.  In 1908, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a State law limiting the number of hours women could work, in the case of ''Muller v. Oregon''.  The Court ruled ''in favor of'' the regulation of women's working conditions even though it had previously ruled ''against'' the power of States to regulate men's working conditions.   

In 1903, the Women's Trade Union League was founded to unionize women workers,  because they had been excluded from the large (men's) American Federation of Labor (AFL) at its union meeting in Boston.  In 1908, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld a State law limiting the number of hours women could work, in the case of ''Muller v. Oregon''.  The Court ruled ''in favor of'' the regulation of women's working conditions even though it had previously ruled ''against'' the power of States to regulate men's working conditions.   

Specifically, in 1905 the Supreme Court invalidated a state regulation of men's working conditions (maximum hours that can be worked), by holding that it violated freedom of contract (free enterprise) under the Constitution.  That was the case of ''Lochner v. New York'', also known as "''Lochner'' doctrine."  This ruling stood for decades and stood as an obstacle in the 1930s to the "New Deal" of President Franklin Roosevelt, who wanted many new regulations in response to the Great Depression.

Specifically, in 1905 the Supreme Court invalidated a state regulation of men's working conditions (maximum hours that can be worked), by holding that it violated freedom of contract (free enterprise) under the Constitution.  That was the case of ''Lochner v. New York'', also known as "''Lochner'' doctrine."  This ruling stood for decades and was an obstacle in the 1930s to the "New Deal" of President Franklin Roosevelt, who wanted many new regulations in response to the Great Depression.

'''Debate: Should government be able to establish different working conditions for women as compared to men?  How about in the case of working conditions that may be harmful to pregnancy or potential pregnancy?'''

'''Debate: Should government be able to establish different working conditions for women as compared to men?  How about in the case of working conditions that may be harmful to pregnancy or potential pregnancy?'''

== 1909 to 1914 ==

== 1909 to 1914 ==

A slightly more conservative president succeeded Teddy Roosevelt in office in 1909:  William Howard Taft.  He lowered tariffs and used executive restraint, more than Roosevelt had.  Taft later became the Chief Justice of the United States (the leading Justice on the Supreme Court); Taft was the only person to lead one branch of government and then lead another.

A more conservative president succeeded Teddy Roosevelt in office in 1909:  William Howard Taft.  He lowered tariffs and exercised executive restraint (limiting his own power).  Taft later became the Chief Justice of the United States (the leading Justice on the Supreme Court); Taft was the only person to lead one branch of government and then lead another.

Taft would have won reelection in 1912, but Teddy Roosevelt insisted on running for president himself as part of the new Progressive (Bull Moose) Party that he founded.  This split the Republican vote in half, and allowed the Democratic candidate, the former governor of New Jersey and president of Princeton University, to win.  An intellectual, Woodrow Wilson was a progressive who served as President from 1913 to 1921, though he was too sick to accomplish anything towards the end of his presidency.  His goal was to make the world safe for democracy, and to expand democracy to foreign countries.  He is also known for starting the Federal Reserve banking system that exists to this day.  The Federal Reserve Act of 1913, which was passed soon after Wilson became president, gave the nation a central banking system for the first time since President Jackson destroyed the Bank of the United States and refused to allow it to be reinstated.

Taft would have won reelection in 1912, but Teddy Roosevelt insisted on running for president himself as part of the new Progressive (Bull Moose) Party that he founded.  This split the Republican vote in half, and allowed the Democratic candidate, the former governor of New Jersey and president of Princeton University, to win.  An intellectual, Woodrow Wilson was a progressive who served as President from 1913 to 1921, though he was too sick to accomplish anything towards the end of his presidency.  His goal was to make the world safe for democracy, and to expand democracy to foreign countries.  He is also known for starting the Federal Reserve banking system that exists to this day.  The Federal Reserve Act of 1913, which was passed soon after Wilson became president, gave our nation a central banking system for the first time since President Jackson destroyed the Bank of the United States and refused to allow it to be reinstated.

As mentioned above, President Taft slightly decreased tariff rates during his presidency (before Wilson).  In 1909, the Paine-Aldrich Tariff reduced tariff rates and then, in 1913, the Underwood Tariff brought a big reduction in duty taxes on imports, the first significant reduction since the Civil War.  President Wilson did not like tariffs and felt they caused conflicts with foreign countries.  He wanted to replace tariffs with a "graduated" or progressive income tax that hit wealthy (primarily hard-working) people more than poor (primarily lazy) people.   

As mentioned above, President Taft slightly decreased tariff rates during his presidency (before Wilson).  In 1909, the Paine-Aldrich Tariff reduced tariff rates and then, in 1913, the Underwood Tariff brought a big reduction in duty taxes on imports, the first significant reduction since the Civil War.  President Wilson did not like tariffs and felt they caused conflicts with foreign countries.  He wanted to replace tariffs with a "graduated" or progressive income tax that hit wealthy (primarily hard-working) people more than poor (often lazy) people.   

The 16th Amendment, which was ratified in 1913 just as Wilson became president, overruled the Supreme Court's decision of ''Pollack v. Farmers Loan and Trust'', which had declared an income tax to be unconstitutional.  The 16th Amendment authorized a national income tax:

The 16th Amendment, which was ratified in 1913 just as Wilson became president, overruled the Supreme Court's decision of ''Pollack v. Farmers Loan and Trust'', which had declared an income tax to be unconstitutional.  '''''The 16th Amendment authorized a national income tax''''':

:The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census of enumeration.

:The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census of enumeration.

He found his answer in the Darwinism that gripped England and Germany.  World War I was, simply put, survival of the fittest by those who had come to believe that only the fittest should survive.  It was application of Darwin's theory to mankind itself.

He found his answer in the Darwinism that gripped England and Germany.  World War I was, simply put, survival of the fittest by those who had come to believe that only the fittest should survive.  It was application of Darwin's theory to mankind itself.

Upon his return to the United States, Bryan felt a calling to prevent the spread of this misguided theory to American.  He supported State laws against teaching, to impressionable children in school, that man had evolved from lower life forms.  Tennessee had such a law banning the teaching of the theory of human evolution in public school.   

Upon his return to the United States, Bryan felt a calling to prevent the spread of this misguided theory to America.  He supported State laws against teaching, to impressionable children in school, that man had evolved from lower life forms.  Tennessee had such a law banning the teaching of the theory of human evolution in public school.   

In 1925, The ACLU defended schoolteacher John Scopes against enforcement of the law.  William Jennings Bryan offered his formidable legal talents to the State of Tennessee to defend the law.  The ACLU retained Clarence Darrow, the leading criminal defense attorney and himself a believer in evolution.  This became the legal fight of the century, Darrow (and Darwin) v. Bryan.

In 1925, the ACLU defended schoolteacher John Scopes against enforcement of the law.  William Jennings Bryan offered his formidable legal talents to the State of Tennessee to defend the law.  The ACLU retained Clarence Darrow, the leading criminal defense attorney and himself a believer in evolution.  This became the legal fight of the century, Darrow (and Darwin) v. Bryan.

So many people flocked to watch the trial that it was often held outside the courthouse in Dayton, Tennessee.  An atheist (and bigot) H.L. Mencken, the leading journalist of the first half of the 20th century, traveled from Baltimore to give his "spin" (biased reporting) on what happened.  Mencken's account misled the world into thinking that Darrow (and Darwin) had won.  In fact, the opposite occurred: Bryan won, Darrow's client Scopes was convicted, and the Tennessee law remained in effect for nearly another 50 years.  Tennessee has remained conservative to this day; Tennessee voted against its own liberal resident Al Gore for President in 2000, giving George W. Bush the national election, and in 2008 presidential candidate John McCain defeated Barack Obama by 15 percentage points there, despite Obama winning by 7 points nationwide.

So many people flocked to watch the trial that it was often held outside the courthouse in Dayton, Tennessee.  An atheist (and bigot) H.L. Mencken, the leading journalist of the first half of the 20th century, traveled from Baltimore to give his "spin" (biased reporting) on what happened.  Mencken's account misled the world into thinking that Darrow (and Darwin) had won.  In fact, the opposite occurred: Bryan won, Darrow's client Scopes was convicted, and the Tennessee law remained in effect for nearly another 50 years.  Tennessee has remained conservative to this day; Tennessee voted against its own liberal resident Al Gore for President in 2000, giving George W. Bush the national election, and in 2008 presidential candidate John McCain defeated Barack Obama by 15 percentage points there, despite Obama winning by 7 points nationwide.