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The '''Enlightenment''' was a predominantly [[liberal]], [[atheism|atheistic]] 18th-century movement in European and American thought that emphasized the power of [[reason]] and [[science]], rather than the [[Bible|Biblical]] truth. It sought to understand and reform the world without reference to [[God]].

The '''Enlightenment''' was an 18th-century movement in European and American thought that emphasized the power or reason and science, rather than traditional doctrine, to understand and reform the world. Some historians also include 17th-century philosophy, usually called the [[Age of Reason]].  

However, not all intellectuals of the time were taken in by the [[liberal deceit]] and the [[Cult of Reason]]. [[Conservatives]] instead embraced and expanded the [[Biblical scientific foreknowledge|scientific foreknowledge]] evident in the Bible using [[faith]] and [[logic]]. Intellectuals such as [[Edmund Burke]] in Britain, who opposed the French Revolution and exalted the bonds of tradition, also questioned the spirit of the Enlightenment. Opposition escalated in the [[Romantic]] era after 1810. In Germany, Herder rejected the French love of abstract ideas in favor of the genius of the German people for instinct and poetry. Important counter-Enlightenment historians included Scottish conservative [[Thomas Carlyle]], and French scholars Ernest Renan and Hippolyte Taine. In the 20th century Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce and German historian [[Oswald Spengler]] were  notable opponents of the French Revolution, and the idea of universal reason.

The Enlightenment artistic style is called "classical" (as opposed to the earlier [[Baroque]] and the later [[Romantic]] styles). The Enlightenment marked advances in philosophy, the sciences (especially physics, chemistry and mathematics), economics, political theory, geography (especially exploration), and technology (especially the origins of the [[Industrial Revolution]]), though in fact the greatest achievements in those fields were typically inspired by Christianity.

The Enlightenment artistic style is called "classical" (as opposed to the earlier [[Baroque]] and the later [[Romantic]] styles). The Enlightenment marked advances in philosophy, the sciences (especially physics, chemistry and mathematics), economics, political theory, geography (especially exploration), and technology (especially the origins of the [[Industrial Revolution]]), though in fact the greatest achievements in those fields were typically inspired by Christianity.

Several of America's Founding Fathers were actively engaged in the Enlightenment, including [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Alexander Hamilton]] and [[James Madison]], and their political thinking influenced American political ideas of [[republicanism]].  [[Adam Smith]] had a major impact on creating [[classical liberalism]] and the ideals of the free market.

Several of America's Founding Fathers were actively engaged in the Enlightenment, including [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Alexander Hamilton]] and [[James Madison]], and their political thinking influenced American political ideas of [[republicanism]].  [[Adam Smith]] had a major impact on creating [[classical liberalism]] and the ideals of the free market.

Developed by the [[philosophes]] in [[France]], England, Scotland, and the German states, the Enlightenment influenced the whole of Europe including [[Russia]] and Scandinavia, as well as the American colonies in the era of the [[American Revolution]].

Developed by the [[philosophes]] in [[France]], England, Scotland, and the German states, the Enlightenment influenced the whole of Europe including [[Russia]] and Scandinavia, as well as the American colonies in the era of the [[American Revolution]].

The crowning political effect of the Enlightenment was the [[French Revolution]], which culminated in the burning of churches and the beheading of accomplished Frenchmen..  Culturally, the rise of [[Romanticism]], with its quest for the unknown future, displaced classical Enlightenment forms, especially in music, painting, literature and philosophy, after 1810.  

In a deeper sense, the ideas and ways of thought of the Enlightenment, especially regarding the value of science and systematic inquiry, have become a permanent part of the modern world.  Many ideas and methods of the Enlightenment are still with us, and conservatives especially admire the work of Montesquieu and Smith, as well as the Americans Franklin, Jefferson, Hamilton and Madison.

Intellectually the Enlightenment was identified with the French "[[philosophes]]" who aggressively spread the new gospel of reason. They were a brilliant collection of scientists, philosophers and writers including [[Voltaire]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Holbach]], [[Condorcet]], [[Denis Diderot]], [[Buffon]], [[Turgot]] and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] in France. Other major leaders included [[David Hume]], [[Adam Smith]] and several others in Scotland; [[John Locke]], [[Edward Gibbon]], [[Samuel Johnson]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] in England; and [[Johann Herder]], [[Gotthold Lessing]] and [[Immanuel Kant]] in Prussia.  

==Political impact==

===Enlightened despots===

Politically the Enlightenment was marked by [[big government| governmental consolidation]], [[judicial activism|the rule of law]] and [[nation building|nation creation]]. Many intellectuals also promoted  [[moral relativism]] and rejected [[chivalry]]  and [[traditional values]] , and encouraged a lack of respect for the nobility and church. The ideology of [[Republicanism]] provided the intellectual foundations of the [[American Revolution]] in which Thomas Jefferson's [[Declaration of Independence]] (1776) borrowed human rights themes first developed a century before by [[John Locke]]. Republicanism also influenced the [[French Revolution]] which saw the Catholic Church as the enemy and promoted in its place a [[Cult of Reason]]. By 1800 or so the Enlightenment was replaced by the [[Romantic Era]], with special impact on the arts. Philosophers were often endorsed by "enlightened despots"—rulers who tried to impose reform by authoritarian means, including [[Joseph II]] of the Holy Roman Empire (Austria), [[Frederick II]] of Prussia, [[Catherine II]] of Russia, and [[Charles III]] of Spain.  

Philosophers were endorsed by "enlightened despots"—rulers who tried to impose reform by authoritarian means, including [[Joseph II]] of the Holy Roman Empire (Austria), [[Frederick II]] of Prussia, [[Catherine II]] of Russia, and [[Charles III]] of Spain.  

In America the leading Enlightenment thinkers were [[Benjamin Franklin]] (who later rejected [[deism]]), [[Thomas Jefferson]] (along with [[James Monroe]] the least Christian of the [[Founding Fathers]]) and [[James Madison]] (who cited Enlightenment thinkers in his ''[[Federalist Papers]]'').  Others, such as the Rev. [[Jonathan Edwards]] and Rev. [[John Witherspoon]], were devout and brilliant Christians who were original in their sermons and writings.   

In America the leading Enlightenment thinkers were [[Benjamin Franklin]] (who later rejected [[deism]]), [[Thomas Jefferson]] (along with [[James Monroe]] the least Christian of the [[Founding Fathers]]) and [[James Madison]] (who cited Enlightenment thinkers in his ''[[Federalist Papers]]'').  Others, such as the Rev. [[Jonathan Edwards]] and Rev. [[John Witherspoon]], were devout and brilliant Christians who were original in their sermons and writings.   

==Science==

==Science==

Advances in science had led to principles and laws that were knowable and unchanging as described within a [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic framework]]. The advances in mathematics and chemistry were especially strong.  This idea of knowledge that could be observed apart from a direct explanation dealing with God led to a change in philosophical ideals, where man could shape and determine his own destiny including areas outside of science such as social and political realities.  In a sense mans' view of his own ability to bring about change and a trust in himself to determine what that change needed to be crystallized in the thought process of the times among the philosophical elite. Writers during the Enlightenment assumed that all branches of science could emulate the achievements in physics of through a systematic and logical approach. However, [[Isaac Newton]], perhaps the greatest enlightenment scientist, rejected [[atheism|atheistic]] explanations and instead embraced and expanded [[Biblical scientific foreknowledge]].

Advances in science had led to principles and laws that were knowable and unchanging as described within a naturalistic framework. The advances in mathematics and chemistry were especially strong.  This idea of knowledge that could be observed apart from a direct explanation dealing with God led to a change in philosophical ideals, where man could shape and determine his own destiny including areas outside of science such as social and political realities.  In a sense mans' view of his own ability to bring about change and a trust in himself to determine what that change needed to be crystallized in the thought process of the times among the philosophical elite.

 

Intellectually the Enlightenment was identified with the French "[[philosophes]]" who aggressively spread the new gospel of reason. They were a brilliant collection of scientists, philosophers and writers including [[Voltaire]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Holbach]], [[Condorcet]], [[Denis Diderot]], [[Buffon]], [[Turgot]] and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] in France. Other major leaders included [[David Hume]], [[Adam Smith]] and several others in Scotland; [[John Locke]], [[Edward Gibbon]], [[Samuel Johnson]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] in England; and [[Johann Herder]], [[Gotthold Lessing]] and [[Immanuel Kant]] in Prussia.  

==Deism==

==Deism==

Some of the Enlightenment leaders of the period challenged traditional Christianity as they adopted God in a [[deist]] form that saw his role as the clockmaker, not the personal guide. While much of the population of the times remained Christian in terms of performing traditional rituals, deism took root in England, France, and the American colonies. Historians have pointed out that argues that belief in Christianity continued to flourish at the grass roots level.<ref> S. J. Barnett, ''The Enlightenment and Religion. The Myths of Modernity'' (2003) </ref>

Some of the Enlightenment leaders of the period challenged traditional Christianity as they adopted God in a [[deist]] form that saw his role as the clockmaker, not the personal guide. While much of the population of the times remained Christian in terms of performing traditional rituals, deism took root in England, France, and the American colonies. Historians have pointed out that argues that belief in Christianity continued to flourish at the grass roots level.<ref> S. J. Barnett, ''The Enlightenment and Religion. The Myths of Modernity'' (2003) </ref>

==Pietism==

==Pietism==

[[Pietism]] was a new and powerful religious movement that emerged among Lutheran and Reformed circles, especially in Germany.  It stressed a vision of individual rebirth as opposed to ritual and theology, with stress on individual moral behavior. Pietism promoted revivals and missionary activism to convert the world to Christ.  American versions of pietism include the revivals of the [[First Great Awakening]] and was especially manifest in the rapid growth of [[Baptist]] and [[Methodist]] churches.  The First Great Awakening launched [[evangelicalism]] in America.<ref> Thomas S. Kidd, ''The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Great-Awakening-Evangelical-Christianity-Colonial/dp/0300118872/ref=ed_oe_h excerpt and text search]; William G. McLaughlin, ''Isaac Backus and the American Pietistic Tradition'' (1967)</ref>

[[Pietism]] was a new and powerful religious movement that emerged among Lutheran and Reformed circles, especially in Germany.  It stressed a vision of individual rebirth as opposed to ritual and theology, with stress on individual moral behavior. Pietism promoted revivals and missionary activism to convert the world to Christ.  American versions of pietism include the revivals of the [[First Great Awakening]] and was especially manifest in the rapid growth of [[Baptist]] and [[Methodist]] churches.  The First Great Awakening launched [[evangelicalism]] in America.<ref> Thomas S. Kidd, ''The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Great-Awakening-Evangelical-Christianity-Colonial/dp/0300118872/ref=ed_oe_h excerpt and text search]; William G. McLaughlin, ''Isaac Backus and the American Pietistic Tradition'' (1967)</ref>

==See also==

==See also==

* [[Philosophes]]

* [[Philosophes]]

== References ==

== References ==