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[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

[[World History Lecture One|1]]-[[World History Lecture Two|2]]-[[World History Lecture Three|3]]-[[World History Lecture Four|4]]-[[World History Lecture Five|5]]-[[World History Lecture Six|6]]-[[World History Lecture Seven|7]]-[[World History Lecture Eight|8]]-[[World History Lecture Nine|9]]-[[World History Lecture Ten|10]]-[[World History Lecture Eleven|11]]-[[World History Lecture Twelve|12]]-[[World History Lecture Thirteen|13]]-[[World History Lecture Fourteen|14]]

Last week we addressed the major early ancient cultures: Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This week becomes even more interesting as we begin to learn the "classical" period of World history: 1000 B.C. to A.D. 500.   

Last week we studied the major early ancient cultures: Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This week becomes even more interesting as we begin to learn the "classical" period of World history: 1000 B.C. to A.D. 500.   

During this period, five different regions of the world had civilizations that advanced the frontiers of knowledge, government and the arts.  Most of them developed independently of each other, because there was very little communication across long distances in the ancient world.  No telephones or the internet existed yet, and sending a message from one side of Europe to the other required a dangerous trip of many weeks or months by a messenger.  Good roads did not exist, and messages may never reach their intended destinations.

During this period, five different regions of the world had civilizations that advanced the frontiers of knowledge, government and the arts.  Most of them developed independently of each other, because there was very little communication across long distances in the ancient world.  No telephones or the internet existed yet, and sending a message from one side of Europe to the other required a dangerous trip of many weeks or months by a messenger.  Good roads did not exist, and messages may never reach their intended destinations.

The five "classical" civilizations were India, China, Greece, Rome and, to a lesser extent, the Americas (in what is now Mexico and Central and South America).  We devote this week to what many consider as the greatest civilization ever: classical Greece.  It was the birthplace of democracy and many other insights and advances.  It was ancient Greece that developed the first language powerful enough to express the concepts at the foundation for Christianity and to enable those principles to be spread throughout the world.  Let's begin by looking at language.

The five "classical" civilizations were India, China, Greece, Rome and, to a lesser extent, the Americas (in what is now Mexico and Central and South America).  We devote this week to what many consider as the greatest civilization ever: classical Greece.  It was the birthplace of democracy and many other insights and advances.  It was ancient Greece that developed the first language powerful enough to express the concepts at the foundation for Christianity and to enable those principles to be spread throughout the world.  Let's begin by looking at language.

== Language ==

== Invention of the Western alphabet ==

Linguistics, which means the study of language, is a fascinating aspect of World history.  A language is essential to the progress and survival of a society - the better the language, the more successful the society is able to become.  Peoples and cultures having only primitive languages could not withstand against peoples and cultures having more powerful languages.  Language expresses and communicates ideas, and facilitates the trade that brings wealth to a civilization.  Observe for yourself how difficult it is, if not impossible, to think about and remember an idea without a term to express it.  What term can one use, for example, to describe someone who promotes a belief system that encourages harmful terrorism, yet does not personally engage in terrorism himself?  Or what word can we use to describe a person, like a drug dealer or lying politician, who profits from promoting things that are hurtful to others?  The lack of a good term makes it more difficult to criticize him.  People are a product of the language they use, and a society is dependent on the intelligence and quality of its language.  The better terminology we use, the better off we will be ourselves; crude or vulgar language is never helpful to our moods or our success.

Linguistics, which means the study of language, is a fascinating aspect of World history.  A language is essential to the progress and survival of a society - the better the language, the more successful the society is able to become.  Peoples and cultures having only primitive languages could not withstand against peoples and cultures having more powerful languages.  Language expresses and communicates ideas, and facilitates the trade that brings wealth to a civilization.  Observe for yourself how difficult it is, if not impossible, to think about and remember an idea without a term to express it.   

 

 

All languages develop based on common and basic aspects of life, such as language needed to describe food, animals, daily activities and commerce or trade (like the word "coin").  But much more is needed in language in order to express the intangibles, such as religious concepts.  Christianity could not develop and spread without a language capable of communicating its concepts.  Had Christ come into this world in 2000 or 1000 B.C., would there have been a language powerful enough to express His ideas?  Probably not.  Note that even Ancient Hebrew lacked vowels, and most non-Hebrew languages were very primitive.   

All languages develop based on common and basic aspects of life, such as language needed to describe food, animals, daily activities and commerce or trade (like the word "coin").  But much more is needed in language in order to express the intangibles, such as religious concepts.  Christianity could not develop and spread without a language capable of communicating its concepts.  Had Christ come into this world in 2000 or 1000 B.C., would there have been a language powerful enough to express His ideas?  Probably not.  Note that even Ancient Hebrew lacked vowels, and most non-Hebrew languages were very primitive.   

An example of a concept that Jesus needed to express was the "Holy Spirit."  Few languages can convey the full meaning of this concept.  The Greek words "pneuma" (wind or breath) and "paraclete" (advocate or one who consoles) are what the Gospel of John uses, and those words capture the guiding, driving force of the Holy Spirit.  The English word "spirit" fails to convey the full meaning of the Greek.  Most languages in the world have smaller vocabularies than English, and thus have even greater difficulty capturing the essence of what we call the "Holy Spirit" and other key concepts of Christianity.

An example of a concept that Jesus needed to express was the "Holy Spirit."  Almost no language can convey the full meaning of this concept.  The Greek words "pneuma" (wind or breath) and "paraclete" (advocate or one who consoles) are what the Gospel of John uses, and those words capture the guiding, driving force of the Holy Spirit.  The English word "spirit" fails to convey the full meaning of the Greek.  Most languages in the world have smaller vocabularies than English, and thus have even greater difficulty capturing the essence of what we call the "Holy Spirit" and other key concepts of Christianity.

Another example is the last utterance on the cross by Jesus, typically translated as "it is finished."<ref>John 19:30 (King James Version).</ref>  In the 20th century it was discovered that the actual Greek term used by John had this meaning in commerce in the 1st century: "paid in full."  So now some translate these final words by Christ "it is accomplished."  But even that may not fully capture the concept of redemption of the sin ("paid in full") that existed in Greek.  Check your Bible to see how it translates John 19:30.

Another example is the last utterance on the Cross by Jesus, typically translated as "it is finished."<ref>John 19:30 (King James Version).</ref>  In the 20th century it was discovered that the actual Greek term used by John had the following meaning in commerce in the 1st century: "paid in full."  So now some translate these final words by Christ "it is accomplished."  But even that may not fully capture the concept of redemption of the sin ("paid in full") that existed in Greek.  Check your Bible to see how it translates John 19:30.

   

   

Recall that the language of Mesopotamia was cuneiform, based on wedge-like characters.  Can you imagine such primitive writing conveying the concept of "Holy Spirit" or "sin" or "redemption" or "faith"?  It was an inadequate language for religion, far too primitive for the needs of the powerful concepts of Christianity.

Recall that the language of Mesopotamia was cuneiform, based on wedge-like characters.  Can you imagine such primitive writing conveying the concept of "Holy Spirit" or "sin" or "redemption" or "faith"?  It was an inadequate language for religion, far too primitive for the needs of the powerful concepts of Christianity.

But in the 1000s B.C., and perhaps earlier, a marvelous new form of language developed among the traders on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, where Lebanon is today.  The Phoenicians lived there and established towns such as Byblos, a religious center after which the Bible is named because the town exported papyrus.  The Phoenicians had ports and sea-traders would pick up exports such as fine linen, cedar, pine wood, dyed cloth, wine, glass, salt, dried fish, and embroideries.  The Phoenicians traded with the Hebrews, who used the cedars of Lebanon to build Solomon's temple.  Colonies of the Phoenicians included Tyre, Sidon and, along the coast of Northern Africa, Carthage.  Carthage later became powerful enough to compete with Rome.  The Assyrian empire, which was the world's first real empire, invaded the Phoenicians in the 500s B.C., causing them to collapse.

'''But in the 1000s B.C., and perhaps earlier, the Phoenicians developed a marvelous new alphabet-based language while trading goods on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, where Lebanon is today'''.  The Phoenicians established towns such as Byblos, a religious center after which the Bible is named because the town exported papyrus.  The Phoenicians had ports and sea-traders would pick up exports such as fine linen, cedar, pine wood, dyed cloth, wine, glass, salt, dried fish, and embroideries.  The Phoenicians traded with the Hebrews, who used the cedars of Lebanon to build Solomon's temple.  Colonies of the Phoenicians included Tyre, Sidon and, along the coast of Northern Africa, Carthage.  Carthage later became powerful enough to compete with Rome.  The Assyrian empire, which was the world's first real empire, invaded the Phoenicians in the 500s B.C., causing them to collapse.

The new language developed by the Phoenicians to facilitate their trading was based on an alphabet of 22 letters.  All Western alphabets, such as English and French and Italian and Greek and Latin, were developed using this Phoenician alphabet.  This Phoenician alphabet was one of the greatest advances in the history of mankind, perhaps greater than the invention of the wheel, because now language could begin to describe powerful concepts and abstract ideas.  This laid the foundation for the accomplishments of Ancient Greece, which in turn laid the foundation for the teaching and spread of Christianity.

The new language developed by the Phoenicians to facilitate their trading was based on an alphabet of 22 letters.  All Western alphabets, such as English and French and Italian and Greek and Latin, were developed using this Phoenician alphabet.  This Phoenician alphabet was one of the greatest advances in the history of mankind, perhaps greater than the invention of the wheel, because now language could begin to describe powerful concepts and abstract ideas.  This laid the foundation for the accomplishments of Ancient Greece, which in turn laid the foundation for the teaching and spread of Christianity.

The Chaldeans' short reign is chronicled in the biblical Book of Daniel.  As a teenager, Daniel was captured by the Chaldean army during its first attack on Jerusalem.  While Daniel served under Nebuchadnezzar, one of only a few Chaldean kings, he interpreted dreams, witnessed the miraculous survival of Shadrach, Meschach and Aben-nego in the fiery furnace, and accurately predicted Nebuchadnezza's downfall.  Under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar's son, Belshazzar, Daniel witnessed the writing on the wall, which he interpreted as a sign of Belshazzar's imminent downfall.  The very next day, the Persians invaded, killed Belshazzar, and took over the Babylonian empire.

The Chaldeans' short reign is chronicled in the biblical Book of Daniel.  As a teenager, Daniel was captured by the Chaldean army during its first attack on Jerusalem.  While Daniel served under Nebuchadnezzar, one of only a few Chaldean kings, he interpreted dreams, witnessed the miraculous survival of Shadrach, Meschach and Aben-nego in the fiery furnace, and accurately predicted Nebuchadnezza's downfall.  Under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar's son, Belshazzar, Daniel witnessed the writing on the wall, which he interpreted as a sign of Belshazzar's imminent downfall.  The very next day, the Persians invaded, killed Belshazzar, and took over the Babylonian empire.

 

=== Persia ===

=== Persia ===