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===Julius Caesar===

===Julius Caesar===

Order was not established until one of the greatest leaders and military minds in the history of the world finally emerged to take control.  Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was a brilliant general who laid the groundwork for the Roman empire.  In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy Marcus Crassus and the powerful Roman general and statesman Pompey the Great to rule Rome as the first triumvirate.  In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consular and used his position to gain favor with the public by, for example, distributing grain to the poor.

Order was not established until one of the greatest leaders and military minds in the history of the world finally emerged to take control.  Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was a brilliant general who laid the groundwork for the Roman empire.  '''In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy Marcus Crassus and the powerful Roman general and statesman Pompey the Great to rule Rome as the first triumvirate'''.  In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consular and used his position to gain favor with the public by, for example, distributing grain to the poor.

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of Gaul (modern-day France).  He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him.  Back in Rome, Julius Caesar's plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle).  Pompey, with the support of the Senate, objected to Julius Caesar's actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome.  But Julius Caesar refused; in an act of direct defiance to the Senate, he then led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B.C.  The expression "crossing the Rubicon" is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back.  Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.  This left Julius Caesar firmly in control of Rome, and he then took his unbeatable army on campaigns in Egypt (where he installed ally Cleopatra as queen), Asia Minor, Africa and Spain before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C.  Rome ruled much of the civilized world as result of these military campaigns, and the Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

Julius Caesar then made himself the provincial ruler (proconsul) of Gaul (modern-day France).  He conquered vast amounts of territory for Rome and, while fighting abroad, sent written reports back to Rome of the victories he was winning, to sustain his popularity and to ensure that the people did not forget him.  Back in Rome, Julius Caesar's plan was working, and Pompey became increasingly jealous (by this time, Crassus had died in battle).  Pompey, with the support of the Senate, objected to Julius Caesar's actions and ordered him to disband his army and return to Rome.  But Julius Caesar refused; in an act of direct defiance to the Senate, he then led his loyal troops across the Rubicon River to Rome and conquered it in 49 B.C.  The expression "crossing the Rubicon" is used today to describe an act from which there is no turning back.  Julius Caesar went on to defeat Pompey at the battle of Pharsalus in 48 B.C.  This left Julius Caesar firmly in control of Rome, and he then took his unbeatable army on campaigns in Egypt (where he installed ally Cleopatra as queen), Asia Minor, Africa and Spain before returning to Rome again in 45 B.C.  Rome ruled much of the civilized world as result of these military campaigns, and the Roman Senate appointed Julius Caesar as dictator for life in 46 B.C.

Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day "Julian Calendar," which provided the foundation for the "Gregorian Calendar" adopted later by a pope and used to this day.  Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the Jews in Palestine, so that the Jewish religion could be practiced outside the requirements of Roman religious law, which continued through the time of Christ.  Julius Caesar was also good to veterans (former soldiers) and the poor.

Julius Caesar instituted the 12-month, 365-day "Julian Calendar," which provided the foundation for the "Gregorian Calendar" adopted later by a pope and used to this day.  Julius Caesar also granted religious rights to the Jews in Palestine, so that the Jewish religion could be practiced outside the requirements of Roman religious law, which continued through the time of Christ.  Julius Caesar was also good to veterans (former soldiers) and the poor.

===Birth of the Roman Empire===

===Birth of the Roman Empire===

In 27 B.C. Octavian struck a deal to share power with the Roman Senate, with the Senate bestowing on Octavian the name "Augustus" (a term usually used in reference to the gods).  The power shared with the Roman Senate was mostly an illusion, however, as Augustus became the dictator, chief priest, and "imperator", a title which meant he had complete control of the army.  This was the official birth of the Roman empire, which covered vast, previously conquered territory (see right).  Augustus ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, including the time of the birth of Jesus Christ.  

In 27 B.C. Octavian struck a deal to share power with the Roman Senate, with the Senate bestowing on Octavian the name "Augustus" (a term usually used in reference to the gods).  The power shared with the Roman Senate was mostly an illusion, however, as Augustus became the dictator, chief priest, and "imperator", a title which meant he had complete control of the army.  '''This was the official birth of the Roman empire''', which covered vast, previously conquered territory (see right).  Augustus ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, including the time of the birth of Jesus Christ.  

Augustus established a constitutional monarchy rather than a true republic, as the Senate's role was only advisory.  Yet under this system of government the Roman empire thrived for 200 years, with the population of Rome growing to more than one million persons by about A.D. 100, a huge number for the ancient world.  The Roman empire included far more than 100 cities, which had their own local governments, and which engaged in trade with each other.  Eventually, a plague and economic disaster began to cause decreases in the populations of cities by about A.D. 200, and barbarian invasions caused more to flee to the countryside.  By the 6th century A.D. the population of Rome was probably less than 50,000 people.  The broadest dates assigned to the Roman empire are from 509 B.C. to A.D. 476, when the last emperor was deposed (removed from power).  The greatest time period for the Roman empire was from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180 (known as "Pax Romana," as described later).

'''Augustus established a constitutional monarchy rather than a true republic, because the Senate's role became only advisory'''.  Yet under this system of government the Roman empire thrived for 200 years, with the population of Rome growing to more than one million persons by about A.D. 100, a huge number for the ancient world.  The Roman empire included far more than 100 cities, which had their own local governments, and which engaged in trade with each other.  Eventually, a plague and economic disaster began to cause decreases in the populations of cities by about A.D. 200, and barbarian invasions caused more to flee to the countryside.  By the 6th century A.D. the population of Rome was probably less than 50,000 people.  The broadest dates assigned to the Roman empire are from 509 B.C. to A.D. 476, when the last emperor was deposed (removed from power).  The greatest time period for the Roman empire was from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180 (known as "Pax Romana," as described later).

The Roman empire is known for its organization and practical benefits for its citizens:  great roads, drinking water, currency, laws, powerful military, useful sewers and the orderly administration of justice.  Massive in geography, the Empire extended all along the Mediterranean Sea and brought civilization to vast tracts of land and many peoples.  The "Silk Road" connected the Roman empire to Parthia (Persia or modern Iran), China and India, thereby facilitating trade.  The Roman empire also established a language and alphabet that is the basis for the modern languages and the writings of Western Europe and the United States.  After initially persecuting Christians, the Roman empire enabled Christianity to expand and flourish.  Summed up in one word, the Roman empire was "organized".

The Roman empire is known for its organization and practical benefits for its citizens:  great roads, drinking water, currency, laws, powerful military, useful sewers and the orderly administration of justice.  Massive in geography, the Empire extended all along the Mediterranean Sea and brought civilization to vast tracts of land and many peoples.  The "Silk Road" connected the Roman empire to Parthia (Persia or modern Iran), China and India, thereby facilitating trade.  The Roman empire also established a language and alphabet that is the basis for the modern languages and the writings of Western Europe and the United States.  After initially persecuting Christians, the Roman empire enabled Christianity to expand and flourish.  Summed up in one word, the Roman empire was "organized".

The Roman empire flourished during "Pax Romana," which is Latin for "the Roman peace."  This is the period from 27 B.C. (when Augustus Caesar declared an end to the civil war) to A.D. 180 (when the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius died).  During this period the Roman empire generally enjoyed peace, leadership by the "Five Good Emperors," and substantial prosperity.  Several of the emperors during this period were chosen for their talent rather than their family connections, such Nerva, who was elected by the Roman Senate.  Nerva was then followed by four other talented emperors:  Trajan (who ruled over more land than anyone), Hadrian (who built defensive walls), Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.  The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, was a philosopher who wrote a book about spirituality called "Meditations", which emphasized one's personal duty.  But he should have given more thought to his successor, because his death in A.D. 180 marked the end of Pax Romana.  Chaos followed and the military then fought over who would be the next emperor.

'''The Roman empire flourished during "Pax Romana," which is Latin for "the Roman peace."  This is the period from 27 B.C. (when Augustus Caesar declared an end to the civil war) to A.D. 180 (when the philosopher-emperor Marcus Aurelius died)'''.  During this period the Roman empire generally enjoyed peace, leadership by the "Five Good Emperors," and substantial prosperity.  Several of the emperors during this period were chosen for their talent rather than their family connections, such Nerva, who was elected by the Roman Senate.  Nerva was then followed by four other talented emperors:  Trajan (who ruled over more land than anyone), Hadrian (who built defensive walls), Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.  The last of the Good Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, was a philosopher who wrote a book about spirituality called "Meditations", which emphasized one's personal duty.  But he should have given more thought to his successor, because his death in A.D. 180 marked the end of Pax Romana.  Chaos followed and the military then fought over who would be the next emperor.

During Pax Romana, the Roman empire governed a vast region extending throughout Western Europe and all the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, including Asia Minor, the Middle East (including Jerusalem), and Northern Africa.  Emperor Claudius, who was in power from A.D. 41 to 54, even conquered what is now England, and added it to the Roman empire, leaving behind improved architecture and ideas which allowed England to become powerful during the Middle Ages.  The Pax Romana was not entirely peaceful, as there were some wars and conflicts, such as wars against the Germanic tribes and Persians, and turmoil in Jerusalem around the time of Christ.  But there were no major civil wars, as there had been for much of the first century B.C., and no major invasions by foreigners into the Roman empire.

During Pax Romana, the Roman empire governed a vast region extending throughout Western Europe and all the lands around the Mediterranean Sea, including Asia Minor, the Middle East (including Jerusalem), and Northern Africa.  Emperor Claudius, who was in power from A.D. 41 to 54, even conquered what is now England, and added it to the Roman empire, leaving behind improved architecture and ideas which allowed England to become powerful during the Middle Ages.  The Pax Romana was not entirely peaceful, as there were some wars and conflicts, such as wars against the Germanic tribes and Persians, and turmoil in Jerusalem around the time of Christ.  But there were no major civil wars, as there had been for much of the first century B.C., and no major invasions by foreigners into the Roman empire.

The Roman provinces, such as Gaul and Spain, did well during this period also.  The Roman government built roads and cities for them and constructed aqueducts and sewers.  Schools were built.  A citizen in these provinces enjoyed the right to appeal to the emperor a decision by a provincial governor installed by Rome.

The Roman provinces, such as Gaul and Spain, did well during this period also.  The Roman government built roads and cities for them and constructed aqueducts and sewers.  Schools were built.  A citizen in these provinces enjoyed the right to appeal to the emperor a decision by a provincial governor installed by Rome.

The uniform law was quite fair, even by modern standards.  Women could own property, for example.  The accused were supposedly guaranteed legal protection, and an accused was innocent until proven guilty.  Obviously this did not occur in the trial of Jesus, however, so there was no safeguard against abuse.  But in theory, all citizens were equal in the eyes of the law, though not everyone (including Jesus) was a citizen.

The uniform law was quite fair, even by modern standards.  Women could own property, for example.  The accused were supposedly guaranteed legal protection, and an accused was innocent until proven guilty.  Obviously this did not occur in the trial of Jesus, however, so there was no guarantee against injustices.  But in theory, all citizens were equal in the eyes of the law, though not everyone (including Jesus) was a citizen.

There were multiple ways to obtain citizenship.  Latins living along the Tiber River were automatically given citizenship.  Others had to enlist in the Roman army for 25 years to earn it.  Paul of Taurus obtained his Roman citizenship by birth to parents who were Roman citizens.  He used his citizenship to invoke his right to appeal to Caesar in Acts 23:31-26:32.

There were multiple ways to obtain citizenship.  Latins living along the Tiber River were automatically given citizenship.  Others had to enlist in the Roman army for 25 years to earn it.  Paul of Taurus obtained his Roman citizenship by birth to parents who were Roman citizens.  He used his citizenship to invoke his right to appeal to Caesar in Acts 23:31-26:32.

===Roman Contributions===

===Roman Contributions===

The Roman civilization began as part of Hellenism from the Greek empire, but the Romans had their own major contributions in engineering (roads and aqueducts), law, the military, and the spread of Christianity.  Roman architecture developed the use of cement and the large arches, domes and vaults, as implemented in the Pantheon (not to be confused with the Parthenon, which was Greek) and the Arch of Constantine.  Roman art used mosaics.  Latin, the great language of the Roman empire, formed the basis for the "romance" languages of Europe still in use today:  French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and is also the primary language of some churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church.  Note that English is not a "romance" language and is not directly descended from Latin; but English did borrow greatly from Old French, which is a romance language.

The Roman civilization began as part of Hellenism from the Greek empire, but the Romans had their own major contributions in engineering (roads and aqueducts), law, the military, and the spread of Christianity.  Roman architecture developed the use of cement and the large arches, domes and vaults, as implemented in the Pantheon (not to be confused with the Parthenon, which was Greek) and the Arch of Constantine.  Roman art used mosaics.  Latin, the great language of the Roman empire, formed the basis for the "romance" languages of Europe still in use today:  French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and Latin is also the primary language of some churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church.  Note that English is not a "romance" language and is not directly descended from Latin; but English did borrow greatly from Old French, which is a romance language.

The Romans are not known for their intellectual achievements.  They valued education only for its practical benefits and contributed little intellectually.  On a practical level the Romans accomplished much with their roads, orderly society, and system of justice.  Roman law held together its vast empire just as Greek culture held together the Hellenistic world.  Perhaps most of all, Christianity grew in the Roman empire.

The Romans are not known for their intellectual achievements.  They valued education only for its practical benefits and contributed little intellectually.  On a practical level the Romans accomplished much with their roads, orderly society, and system of justice.  Roman law held together its vast empire just as Greek culture held together the Hellenistic world.  Perhaps most of all, Christianity grew in the Roman empire.

==The Roman Empire and Christianity==

==The Roman Empire and Christianity==

Jesus did not seek fame and many could not recognize him; recall that the betrayal by Judas was needed to identify Jesus.  But non-believing historians like Josephus (A.D. 37-100) recorded Jesus's life:

Jesus did not seek fame and many could not recognize Him; recall that the betrayal by Judas was needed to identify Jesus.  But non-believing historians like Josephus (A.D. 37-100) recorded Jesus's life:

:"At this time there was a wise man who was called Jesus. ... Pilate condemned Him ... to die. And those who had become His disciples did not abandon His discipleship. They reported that He had appeared to them three days after His crucifixion and that He was alive; accordingly, He was perhaps the Messiah concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders."<ref>Antiquities, xviii.ch. 3, subtopic 3, Arabic text.  http://www.bibleviews.com/non-biblical.html.</ref>

:"At this time there was a wise man who was called Jesus. ... Pilate condemned Him ... to die. And those who had become His disciples did not abandon His discipleship. They reported that He had appeared to them three days after His crucifixion and that He was alive; accordingly, He was perhaps the Messiah concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders."<ref>Antiquities, xviii.ch. 3, subtopic 3, Arabic text.  http://www.bibleviews.com/non-biblical.html</ref>

and also:

and also:

Emperor Constantine promised that he would convert to Christianity (as his mother had) if God would make him victorious in the difficult battle in A.D. 306.  Constantine won and then converted.  In A.D. 312, Constantine began using Christian symbols for his military after seeing a vision of the sign of the cross in rays of sunlight.  In 326, Constantine declared Sunday to be a religious holiday.  By the time of his death in A.D. 333, Constantine had declared Christianity as an official religion of the Roman empire, and the Eastern Orthodox Church adores him as a saint to this day.

Emperor Constantine promised that he would convert to Christianity (as his mother had) if God would make him victorious in the difficult battle in A.D. 306.  Constantine won and then converted.  In A.D. 312, Constantine began using Christian symbols for his military after seeing a vision of the sign of the cross in rays of sunlight.  In 326, Constantine declared Sunday to be a religious holiday.  By the time of his death in A.D. 333, Constantine had declared Christianity as an official religion of the Roman empire, and the Eastern Orthodox Church adores him as a saint to this day.

Establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire is what made Constantine so important, but he was also brilliant in recognizing the significance of the eastern half of the Roman empire.  That happened as follows.  Constantine fought the ruler of the eastern half beginning in A.D. 314.  In 323, Constantine ultimately conquered the East and killed its emperor, Licinius, thereby uniting West and East into one mighty Roman empire.  Constantine founded a second capital in the East at Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople in his own honor (which is now Istanbul, Turkey).  

'''Establishing Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire is what made Constantine so important, but he was also brilliant in recognizing the significance of the eastern half of the Roman empire'''.  That happened as follows.  Constantine fought the ruler of the eastern half beginning in A.D. 314.  In 323, Constantine ultimately conquered the East and killed its emperor, Licinius, thereby uniting West and East into one mighty Roman empire.  Constantine founded a second capital in the East at Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople in his own honor (which is now Istanbul, Turkey).  

The eastern half was always richer and stronger, and it survived as the Byzantine Empire through the Middle Ages.  Constantine had placed his name on a city that would play an instrumental role in trade and military conflicts.  The eastern half split from the west in A.D. 395 and grew in power and wealth, surviving for nearly a thousand years after the fall of Rome.  

The eastern half was always richer and stronger, and it survived as the Byzantine Empire through the Middle Ages.  Constantine had placed his name on a city that would play an instrumental role in trade and military conflicts.  The eastern half split from the west in A.D. 395 and grew in power and wealth, surviving for nearly a thousand years after the fall of Rome.