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Russia is located on what is known as the "[[steppe]]" (pronounced simply as "step"), which is a broad, flat grassland lacking trees.  The steppe stretches across Asia and eastern Europe.  The steppe has fertile soil and navigable rivers for trade.  By A.D. 100, [[Slavic]] peoples (the "Slavs") had settled the steppe and cultivated the soil with iron tools.  They lived in tribes and villages but were vulnerable to nomadic fighters such as the [[Huns]] (recall our encounter last week with "Attila the Hun").  The Slavs established an important trade city known as [[Kiev]], which exists to this day, and named the territory "Rus", from which the name Russian comes.

Russia is located on what is known as the "[[steppe]]" (pronounced simply as "step"), which is a broad, flat grassland lacking trees.  The steppe stretches across Asia and eastern Europe.  The steppe has fertile soil and navigable rivers for trade.  By A.D. 100, [[Slavic]] peoples (the "Slavs") had settled the steppe and cultivated the soil with iron tools.  They lived in tribes and villages but were vulnerable to nomadic fighters such as the [[Huns]] (recall our encounter last week with "Attila the Hun").  The Slavs established an important trade city known as [[Kiev]], which exists to this day, and named the territory "Rus", from which the name Russian comes.

The capital of Rus was Kiev from A.D. 882 to 1169, and it prospered.  [[Prince Vladimir]] of Kiev chose [[Orthodox Christianity]] as the religion, and established the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] for the Russian people, which led to cultural exchanges between Russia and [[Byzantine]].  Some historians say that the prince rejected Islam because of its prohibition on alcohol, which has been a profitable export for Russia to even this day.  The more likely reason for the rejection of Islam was that the prince was [[Christian]] himself, as he enthusiastically promoted Christian [[baptism]] for everyone.

The capital of Rus was Kiev from A.D. 882 to 1169, and it prospered.  [[Prince Vladimir]] of Kiev chose [[Orthodox Christianity]] as the religion, and established the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] for the Russian people, which led to cultural exchanges between Russia and [[Byzantine]].  Some historians say that the prince rejected Islam because of its prohibition on alcohol, which has been a profitable export for Russia even to this day.  The more likely reason for the rejection of Islam was that the prince was [[Christian]] himself, as he enthusiastically promoted Christian [[baptism]] for everyone.

Kiev furnished many slaves to the Byzantine empire (the word "Slav" comes from same word root as the word "slave").  This was enormously profitable.  Kiev also traded in many other goods, and by A.D. 1000 was one of the wealthiest cities in the world.  It later declined in the 13th century as the [[Mongols]] successfully invaded Russia and interfered with trade.

Kiev furnished many slaves to the Byzantine empire (the word "Slav" comes from same word root as the word "slave").  This was enormously profitable.  Kiev also traded in many other goods, and by A.D. 1000 was one of the wealthiest cities in the world.  It later declined in the 13th century as the [[Mongols]] successfully invaded Russia and interfered with trade.

* Aztecs in A.D. 1200-1521

* Aztecs in A.D. 1200-1521

They all engaged in human sacrifice, and all practiced [[polytheistic]] religions.  They shared a common belief in [[Quetzelcoatl]] (KWET-suhl-kuh-WA-tuhl), a god of the wind and air depicted as a feathered serpent.  The [[Aztec]] civilization, which came much later, also worshiped this god.  The Teotihuacan, Maya, and Moche civilizations used a truncated [[pyramid]] similar to a [[ziggurat]].  They had ball-playing sporting activities for entertainment, and relied on [[corn]] as a crop.  They are known as "Pre-Columbian" because they predate the arrival to the New World by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492.  Each of these civilizations is explained below, along with their proper pronunciations:

They all engaged in human sacrifice, and all practiced [[polytheistic]] religions.  They shared a common belief in [[Quetzelcoatl]] (KWET-suhl-kuh-WA-tuhl), a god of the wind and air depicted as a feathered serpent.  The [[Aztec]] civilization, which came much later, also worshiped this god.  The Teotihuacan, Maya, and Moche civilizations used a truncated [[pyramid]] similar to a [[ziggurat]].  They had ball-playing sports-like activities for entertainment, and relied on [[corn]] as a crop.  They are known as "Pre-Columbian" because they predate the arrival to the New World by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492.  Each of these civilizations is explained below, along with their proper pronunciations:

=== The Teotihuacan ===

=== The Teotihuacan ===

   

   

The civilization of the Teotihuacan (pronounced TA-oh-TEE-wuh-KHAN) (A.D. 100-900) followed the Olmec civilization in Mesoamerica, creating a large city totaling perhaps 200,000 people.  They worshiped gods of the sun and moon, as well as goddesses of rain and water.  People lived in barrios (suburbs or ghettos) around the city.  Like many ancient societies, they had an upper class of priests and nobles.   

'''Known as "City of the gods," Teotihuacan (pronounced TA-oh-TEE-wuh-KHAN) (A.D. 100-900) was perhaps the most powerful and largest city-state in Mesoamerica (central Mexico), having up to 200,000 people at its peak'''.  They worshiped gods of the sun and moon, as well as goddesses of rain and water.  People lived in barrios (suburbs or ghettos) around the city.  Like many ancient societies, they had an upper class of priests and nobles (wealthy men who controlled much of the land).  It is a spectacular archaeological site today.

=== The Maya ===

=== The Maya ===

The civilization of the Maya (MAH-yuh or MEYE-uh) (A.D. 300-900) in [[Central America]] was located on the Yucatan peninsula, which totaled 5-16 million people.  The [[Mayans]] have been called the "Greeks of the New World" by many historians.  The Mayans had some knowledge of [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]], ritual ballgames for entertainment, and the use of their own pictographic language.  Unlike Europeans at the time, Mayans did understand the concept of [[zero]] just as the Indians in South Asia did.

The Mayans used a yearly solar calendar that was perhaps more precise than the Roman (Julian) calendar, with 18 months and 20 days per month, which has almost the same number of days as our 365-day calendar.  The Mayans also built temples looking very similar to the ziggurats used in Mesopotamia, puzzling many historians.  The Mayans constructed a spectacular capital at Tikal and a worship center at Chichen Itza featuring the ziggurats.  For food, the Mayans grew maize (corn), squash and beans.  They also traded in stones, salt, honey and shells.  Like American Indians, the Mayans had no coins or paper money, but sometimes traded in cacao (chocolate) beans.  Unlike the American Indians, the Mayans used a written language based on symbols or "glyphs", as in hieroglyphics.

The Mayans used a yearly solar calendar that was perhaps more precise than the Roman (Julian) calendar, using 18 months and 20 days per month, which has almost the same number of days as our 365-day calendar.  The Mayans also built temples looking very similar to the ziggurats used in Mesopotamia, puzzling many historians.  The Mayans constructed a spectacular capital at Tikal and a worship center at Chichen Itza featuring the ziggurats.  For food, the Mayans grew maize (corn), squash and beans.  They also traded in stones, salt, honey and shells.  Like American Indians the Mayans had no coins or paper money, but sometimes traded in cacao (chocolate) beans.  Unlike the American Indians, the Mayans used a written language based on symbols or "glyphs", as in hieroglyphics.

The Mayan religion was polytheistic and Mayans "appeased the gods" by sacrificing children to them.  The Mayans believed in creation as explained in their religious text named the "Popol Vuh," and the Mayans hoped that a god named Quetzalcoatl would return to rule in peace.  Wealthy women enjoyed some rights in the society.  Most women stayed in the home to raise children.

The reason for the decline of the Mayan civilization is unknown.  '''Mayan cities were abruptly abandoned in the 800s and by the mid-900s the civilization was just a shadow of its former self'''.  It disintegrated into independent towns, or city-states.  But today 4 million people still speak the Mayan language.   

 

The reason for the decline of the Mayan civilization is unknown.  Mayan cities were abruptly abandoned in the 800s and by the mid-900s the civilization was just a shadow of its former self.  It disintegrated into independent towns, or city-states.  But today 4 million people still speak the Mayan language.   

=== The Toltecs ===

=== The Toltecs ===

The Toltecs (A.D. 900-1200) were a northern Mexican nomadic tribe that ruled about 50 miles north of present-day Mexico City, in a city called Tula.  They were fighters who helped conquer the city of Teotihuacan in the 8th century.  But living by the sword meant they would also be conquered by the sword, as Jesus said, and the Toltecs fell at the hands of northern Chichimec tribes.   

'''The Toltecs (A.D. 900-1200) were a northern Mexican nomadic tribe that ruled about 50 miles north of present-day Mexico City, in a city called Tula'''.  They were fighters who helped conquer the city of Teotihuacan in the 8th century.  But living by the sword meant they would also be conquered by the sword, as Jesus said, and the Toltecs fell at the hands of northern Chichimec tribes.   

The Toltecs may have traded with a group that lived in the southwestern portion of the United States, the Anasazi.  Some historians feel that the Toltecs traded obsidian, which is black volcanic glass having a unique shape, for jade with the Anasazians.

The Toltecs may have traded with a group that lived in the southwestern portion of the United States, the Anasazi.  Some historians feel that the Toltecs traded obsidian, which is black volcanic glass having a unique shape, for jade with the Anasazians.

=== The Aztecs ===

=== The Aztecs ===

The Aztecs (the Mexica) (A.D. 1200-1521) adopted many of the legends, ballgames, calendar and customs of their predecessors, but were more warlike.  In 1325, they built their capital named Tenochtitlan in central Mexico on an island in Lake Texcoco pursuant to a prophecy, and constructed three causeways to connect it to the mainland.  The capital city was magnificent, featuring splendid pyramids and temples.  The Aztecs trade with far-away peoples, and acquired wealth through trade and tributes.  Intellectually, however, the Aztecs did not advance knowledge or civilization.

'''The Aztecs (the Mexica) (A.D. 1200-1521) adopted many of the legends, ballgames, calendar and customs of their predecessors, but were more warlike'''.  In 1325, they built their capital named Tenochtitlan in central Mexico on an island in Lake Texcoco pursuant to a prophecy, and constructed three causeways to connect it to the mainland.  The capital city was magnificent, featuring splendid pyramids and temples.  The Aztecs trade with far-away peoples, and acquired wealth through trade and tributes.  Intellectually, however, the Aztecs did not advance knowledge or civilization.

For food they used plots of floating land called chinampas, which were made from soil dredged from the bottom of the lake.  They grew mostly corn and some squash and beans.  They traded gems, cacoa (chocolate), and animal skins.  They were more powerful than their neighbors and even formed a "Triple Alliance" with the city-states of Tlacopan and Texcoco to keep peace.  The Aztecs had very little bureaucracy and did not maintain a standing army.  There was no reason to, as soldiers could be summoned as needed.

For food they used plots of floating land called "chinampas", which were made from soil dredged from the bottom of the lake.  They grew mostly corn and some squash and beans.  They traded gems, cacoa (chocolate), and animal skins.  They were more powerful than their neighbors and even formed a "Triple Alliance" with the city-states of Tlacopan and Texcoco to keep peace.  The Aztecs had very little bureaucracy and did not maintain a standing army.  There was no reason to, as soldiers could be summoned as needed.

The Aztecs funded their activities based on mandatory tributes, and they would sacrifice people (including their enemies) with greater frequency than prior civilizations.  For example, the Aztecs worshiped a war god named [[Huitzilopochtli]], to whom the Aztecs sacrificed prisoners of war.  They felt this helped their future with the gods.

The Aztecs funded their activities based on mandatory tributes, and they would sacrifice people (including their enemies) with greater frequency than prior civilizations.  For example, the Aztecs worshiped a war god named [[Huitzilopochtli]], to whom the Aztecs sacrificed prisoners of war.  They felt this helped their future with the gods.

=== The Incas ===

=== The Incas ===

The Incas (the Quechua) (beginning in A.D. 1250, but especially 1438-1537) developed a massive empire in the [[Andes]] Mountains in South America, considered to be the largest civilization in all of the Americas.  Its beginnings were in the Moche civilization that thrived in South America in the first millennium, along the Andes mountain range.  Their culture was based on a system of "reciprocity", whereby people traded favors and work in a cooperative manner, and on "verticality", whereby people exploited the advantages of different altitudes in the mountains for jobs like growing different crops.

'''The Incas (the Quechua) (beginning in A.D. 1250, but especially 1438-1537) developed a massive empire in the [[Andes]] Mountains in South America, considered to be the largest civilization in all of the Americas'''.  Its beginnings were in the Moche civilization that thrived in South America in the first millennium, along the Andes mountain range.  Their culture was based on a system of "reciprocity", whereby people traded favors and work in a cooperative manner, and on "verticality", whereby people exploited the advantages of different altitudes in the mountains for jobs like growing different crops.

A ruler named Pachacuti (A.D. 1438-1471) conquered the surroundings of Lake Titicaca and then gained control of the coastal Chimu, which had been a power in the 900s, by cutting off its irrigation system.  He established an empire on the west side of South America that extended along the coast from nearly from the top (north) of South America to its bottom (south), including present-day Ecuador and Chile.  The empire also extended many miles inland, including the high regions of the mountains.  Included were 12 million people of many different ethnic backgrounds.  Loyalty was obtained by taking important hostages from conquered peoples, and also by settling reliable Quechua loyalists in each conquered area.  The capital was at Cuzco.

A ruler named Pachacuti (A.D. 1438-1471) conquered the surroundings of Lake Titicaca and then gained control of the previously powerful coastal Chimu, by cutting off its irrigation system.  He established an empire on the west side of South America that extended along the coast from nearly from the top (north) of South America to its bottom (south), including present-day Ecuador and Chile.  The empire also extended many miles inland, including the high regions of the mountains.  Its population was 12 million people of many different ethnic backgrounds.  Loyalty was obtained by taking important hostages from conquered peoples, and also by settling reliable Quechua loyalists in each conquered area.  The capital was at Cuzco.

The Incas lacked a written language, which made it different from other civilizations.  Instead, the Incas used a large cord to administer their empire.  The "quipu" was a third cord that held together many different cords of various colors, shapes and sizes.  The cords kept an accounting of things in the empire, such as population.  The Incas had superb roads and system of messengers and soldiers to transmit messages and maintain order.  Stations existed along the roads for supplies, food, and overnight stays, like hotels.  Overall, the Incas were good administrators of their vast empire.

'''The Incas lacked a written language, which made it different from other civilizations'''.  Instead, the Incas used a large cord to administer their empire.  The "quipu" was a third cord that held together many different cords of various colors, shapes and sizes.  The cords kept an accounting of things in the empire, such as population.  The Incas had superb roads and system of messengers and soldiers to transmit messages and maintain order.  Stations existed along the roads for supplies, food, and overnight stays, like hotels.  Overall, the Incas were good administrators of their vast empire.

The Incas differed from the Aztecs in that the Incas did not demand tribute to fund the empire.  Instead, the Incas required people to work in "mita", which were shifts of mandatory farming, building, or mining.  Small groups formed ("ayllu") to do community projects.  Women cared for the households and did tasks like making clothes.  Like the Central American ("Mesoamerican") societies, daughters inherited from their mothers and sons inherited from their fathers, under a system known as "parallel descent."

The Incas differed from the Aztecs in that the Incas did not demand tribute to fund the empire.  Instead, the Incas required people to work in "mita", which were shifts of mandatory farming, building, or mining.  Small groups formed ("ayllu") to do community projects.  Women cared for the households and did tasks like making clothes.  Like the Central American ("Mesoamerican") societies, daughters inherited wealth from their mothers and sons inherited from their fathers, under a system known as "parallel descent."

The Spanish called the Incas "big ears" because the wealthy (aristocrats) would wear earrings so heavy that they would stretch their ears.  The king, or "Inca", was considered to be a god who descended from the sun, while his main wife was considered to be from the moon.  Like the Egyptians, mummification was used to preserve the rulers after they died, and major decisions would even be made in the presence of the mummies to benefit from their wisdom.

The Spanish called the Incas "big ears" because the wealthy (aristocrats) would wear earrings so heavy that they would stretch their ears.  The king, or "Inca", was considered to be a god who descended from the sun, while his main wife was considered to be from the moon.  Like the Egyptians, mummification was used to preserve the rulers after they died, and major decisions would even be made in the presence of the mummies supposedly to benefit from their wisdom.

Religion played a key role.  There was a god believed to be the creator named Viracocha.  Human sacrifice was used but animal sacrifice was more popular.  Sin was recognized and punished in an afterlife.  The main religious city was probably Machu Picchu, located high in the Andes and first discovered in 1912 by Hiram Bingham.

Religion played a key role.  There was a god believed to be the creator, named Viracocha.  Human sacrifice was used but animal sacrifice was more popular.  Sin was recognized and punished in an afterlife.  The main religious city was probably Machu Picchu, located high in the Andes and first discovered in 1912 by archeologist Hiram Bingham.

The Incas used irrigation and food was plentiful.  They devised a system to freeze-dry potatoes in order to survive famine.  However, the Incas had very few skilled artisans, in contrast to Mesoamerica.

The Incas used irrigation and food was plentiful.  They devised a system to freeze-dry potatoes in order to survive famine.  However, the Incas had very few skilled artisans, in contrast to Mesoamerica.