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Choosing a "favourite" Roman Emperor is a broad and inherently subjective question, as no parameters of time and geography, nor criteria by which to judge Emperors, are provided. For the sake of argument, I select Diocletian. Diocletian reunited the Empire following the Crisis of the Third Century and, unlike the more famous Emperors, focused on improving Rome's economic and administrative situation alongside military reforms. Diocletian passed various economic regulations which were attempts to reinvigorate the desperate state of the imperial economy. During the civil wars, inflation had skyrocketed and the currency had been devalued - Diocletian fixed the prices of goods and services in order to restore public confidence in the Imperial economy. He additionally fixed prices in an attempt to regulate the profiteering and hoarding that had marked the civil wars. His legislation to make people stay on their farms was necessary to stop the flow of farmers moving to towns, which was greatly reducing the Empire's food production while overcrowding the towns. Diocletian also raised taxes on the rich and divided up the biggest estates, the ''latifundae'' (many of which had collapsed financially as the vast slave workforces necessary to produce crops had taken their chance to escape during the civil wars) and redistributed the land to smallholders. By doing this and by making the super-rich pay more substantial taxes, Diocletian greatly increased the Empire's income, food output, and made life a little fairer for ordinary Roman citizens. Politically, he divided power between four Tetrarchs - including himself - who each managed a quarter of the Empire. Additionally, Diocletian was one of the very few Emperors who resigned and retired when the time was right, rather than clinging on to power regardless of the circumstances. It is true that not all of these reforms worked but without the reforms of Diocletian, it is likely that the Empire would have collapsed in the late third or early fourth century, and history would have been very different.

Choosing a "favourite" Roman Emperor is a broad and inherently subjective question, as no parameters of time and geography, nor criteria by which to judge Emperors, are provided. For the sake of argument, I select Diocletian. Diocletian reunited the Empire following the Crisis of the Third Century and, unlike the more famous Emperors, focused on improving Rome's economic and administrative situation alongside military reforms. Diocletian passed various economic regulations which were attempts to reinvigorate the desperate state of the imperial economy. During the civil wars, inflation had skyrocketed and the currency had been devalued - Diocletian fixed the prices of goods and services in order to restore public confidence in the Imperial economy. He additionally fixed prices in an attempt to regulate the profiteering and hoarding that had marked the civil wars. His legislation to make people stay on their farms was necessary to stop the flow of farmers moving to towns, which was greatly reducing the Empire's food production while overcrowding the towns. Diocletian also raised taxes on the rich and divided up the biggest estates, the ''latifundae'' (many of which had collapsed financially as the vast slave workforces necessary to produce crops had taken their chance to escape during the civil wars) and redistributed the land to smallholders. By doing this and by making the super-rich pay more substantial taxes, Diocletian greatly increased the Empire's income, food output, and made life a little fairer for ordinary Roman citizens. Politically, he divided power between four Tetrarchs - including himself - who each managed a quarter of the Empire. Additionally, Diocletian was one of the very few Emperors who resigned and retired when the time was right, rather than clinging on to power regardless of the circumstances. It is true that not all of these reforms worked but without the reforms of Diocletian, it is likely that the Empire would have collapsed in the late third or early fourth century, and history would have been very different.

''2. Describe what the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire were, including approximate dates.''  

''2. Describe what the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire were, including approximate dates.''  

The Roman Republic can be described as the hegemonic state founded in 509 BC, which gradually absorbed or conquered neighbours and rivals to spread across most of the contemporary known world. At its height in the first century BC, the Republic's boundaries around ''Mare Nostrum'', or "Our Sea", were Mauretania to Egypt in the south, a shifting frontier zone in the Levant and Asia Minor against the Parthians in the east, a similar shifting frontier in the northern Balkans and Lower Germania in the north, and the Atlantic in the west. Britannia had been invaded - but not conquered - by Julius Caesar. However, this polity was not a single state but was composed of various ''colonia'' and ''provincia'' (such as Gallia and Hispania Ultima) under semi-autonomous governors ultimately answerable to Rome, a number of client-states (such as Judea and Athens) under nominally semi-independent local kings, and allied kingdoms (such as Transnistria and Taurica in the modern-day Crimea). From this peak - with the exception of temporary annexations of Romania and Mesopotamia - the state gradually shrank in terms of territory, economic output, and military strength. The Roman "Empire" is traditionally held to be the centralisation of power in a single figurehead; a state which lasted from the Senate's appointment of Octavian as ''Princeps et Imperator'' in 27 BC, ending officially in the West in 476 AD. However the Eastern Empire remained in effect until 1453 AD while the revival of the ''Imperium Romanorum'' under Charlemagne in 800 AD endured until its dissolution in 1806. It is worth noting, though, that following 27 BC until the state's dissolution in 476 or 1453, the Roman state officially remained a Republic and the Roman army continued to swear allegiance not to the ''Imperator'' but to the ''Senatus et Populesque Romanorum''.

The Roman Republic can be described as the hegemonic state founded in 509 BC, which gradually absorbed or conquered neighbours and rivals to spread across most of the contemporary known world. At its height in the first century BC, the Republic's boundaries around ''Mare Nostrum'', or "Our Sea", were Mauretania to Egypt in the south, a shifting frontier zone in the Levant and Asia Minor against the Parthians in the east, a similar shifting frontier in the northern Balkans and Lower Germania in the north, and the Atlantic in the west. Britannia had been invaded - but not conquered - by Julius Caesar. However, this polity was not a single state but was composed of various ''colonia'' and ''provincia'' (such as Gallia and Hispania Ultima) under semi-autonomous governors ultimately answerable to Rome, a number of client-states (such as Judea and Athens) under nominally semi-independent local kings, and allied kingdoms (such as Transnistria and Taurica in the modern-day Crimea). From this peak - with the exception of temporary annexations of Romania and Mesopotamia - the state gradually shrank in terms of territory, economic output, and military strength. The Roman "Empire" is traditionally held to be the centralisation of power in a single figurehead; a state which lasted from the Senate's appointment of Octavian as ''Princeps et Imperator'' in 27 BC, ending officially in the West in 476 AD. However the Eastern Empire remained in effect until 1453 AD while the revival of the ''Imperium Romanorum'' under Charlemagne in 800 AD endured until its dissolution in 1806. It is worth noting, though, that following 27 BC until the state's dissolution in 476 or 1453, the Roman state officially remained a Republic and the Roman army continued to swear allegiance not to the ''Imperator'' but to the ''Senatus et Populesque Romanorum''.

''3. Compare and contrast the Roman Empire in the West with the Byzantine Empire.''  

''3. Compare and contrast the Roman Empire in the West with the Byzantine Empire.''  

In the Greek-speaking, predominantly Christian East, the economic and military situations were significantly better. Although the East faced the Parthians - a far more organised and much stronger single opponent than the various relatively weak "barbarian" factions harrassing the Western Empire - the East had a far larger population. This, in turn, meant much more tax income and trade, and a larger pool of manpower for the military. In addition, the Eastern bureaucracy was larger and much better-organised, while the Eastern army only had to hold a short frontier against the Parthians, unlike the badly overstretched Western army. Migration into the Eastern Empire was less significant than in the West, and a combination of internal strength and external weakness ensured that the East avoided the West's fracturing into semi-independent fiefdoms as a reaction to migrations and the failures of the central government. By the time the Western Empire was officially ended in 476, it had long since ceased to be an effective power - but the Eastern Empire remained strong until the Arab expansion on the seventh century. The Eastern Empire's defeat at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 began a long decline as imperial trade, tax levies, and military resources lessened. Increasingly poor relations with the emergent Arab states, Seljuk Turks, and re-emergent Western European kingdoms in the Early Middle Ages led to the Eastern Empire's isolation and, ignored by other Christian states and under constant attack from Islamic and Christian powers, the Empire fell in 1453 (although the marriage of Sophia Paleologue to Muscovite Czar Ivan III in 1469 resulted in Russia claiming to be a continuation of the Roman Empire until its fall in 1917; while the Holy Roman Emperors in the West claimed to be a continuation of the Western [and entire] Roman Empire from 800-1806). It is worth noting that the term "Byzantine" was not a contemporary term but one applied retrospectively; as the Eastern Empire continued to call itself - and be called by others - "the Roman Empire".

In the Greek-speaking, predominantly Christian East, the economic and military situations were significantly better. Although the East faced the Parthians - a far more organised and much stronger single opponent than the various relatively weak "barbarian" factions harrassing the Western Empire - the East had a far larger population. This, in turn, meant much more tax income and trade, and a larger pool of manpower for the military. In addition, the Eastern bureaucracy was larger and much better-organised, while the Eastern army only had to hold a short frontier against the Parthians, unlike the badly overstretched Western army. Migration into the Eastern Empire was less significant than in the West, and a combination of internal strength and external weakness ensured that the East avoided the West's fracturing into semi-independent fiefdoms as a reaction to migrations and the failures of the central government. By the time the Western Empire was officially ended in 476, it had long since ceased to be an effective power - but the Eastern Empire remained strong until the Arab expansion on the seventh century. The Eastern Empire's defeat at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 began a long decline as imperial trade, tax levies, and military resources lessened. Increasingly poor relations with the emergent Arab states, Seljuk Turks, and re-emergent Western European kingdoms in the Early Middle Ages led to the Eastern Empire's isolation and, ignored by other Christian states and under constant attack from Islamic and Christian powers, the Empire fell in 1453 (although the marriage of Sophia Paleologue to Muscovite Czar Ivan III in 1469 resulted in Russia claiming to be a continuation of the Roman Empire until its fall in 1917; while the Holy Roman Emperors in the West claimed to be a continuation of the Western [and entire] Roman Empire from 800-1806). It is worth noting that the term "Byzantine" was not a contemporary term but one applied retrospectively; as the Eastern Empire continued to call itself - and be called by others - "the Roman Empire".

''4. Explain what Pax Romana was.''  

''4. Explain what Pax Romana was.''  

Like all such purported phenomena (the ''Pax Britannica'', the ''Pax Sovietica'', the ''Pax Americana''), the ''Pax Romana'' is something which did not exist. The Romans did bring peace to parts of the known world, at times, most notably 27BC - 180AD. But this was peace in the aftermath of devastating wars. As Calgacus said to the Romans, recorded in Tacitus - "You make a wasteland, and you call it 'peace'." The Roman Empire was characterised by perpetual war; conflict was always happening somewhere on the Empire's frontiers, including the period c.27BC-180AD. Trajan's genocidal conquest of Dacia in the early 100s AD, two abortive invasions of Aethiopia in the first century AD, and of coure Claudius' invasion of Britannia in 43 AD are just three examples of violent wars which occured during the purported ''Pax Romana''. Just because things were relatively peaceful within the Empire (ignoring, of course, the rampant abuses committed against the Empire's vast slave population and religious sects), doesn't mean that there was peace.  

Like all such purported phenomena (the ''Pax Britannica'', the ''Pax Sovietica'', the ''Pax Americana''), the ''Pax Romana'' is something which did not exist. The Romans did bring peace to parts of the known world, at times, most notably 27BC - 180AD. But this was peace in the aftermath of devastating wars. As Calgacus said to the Romans, recorded in Tacitus - "You make a wasteland, and you call it 'peace'." The Roman Empire was characterised by perpetual war; conflict was always happening somewhere on the Empire's frontiers, including the period c.27BC-180AD. Trajan's genocidal conquest of Dacia in the early 100s AD, two abortive invasions of Aethiopia in the first century AD, and of coure Claudius' invasion of Britannia in 43 AD are just three examples of violent wars which occured during the purported ''Pax Romana''. Just because things were relatively peaceful within the Empire (ignoring, of course, the rampant abuses committed against the Empire's vast slave population and religious sects), doesn't mean that there was peace.  

''5. Discuss Hannibal or Attila the Hun.''  

''5. Discuss Hannibal or Attila the Hun.''  

Attila's death the next winter is traditionally interpreted as an ironic ar rather pathetic end for the Scourge of God - dying of a nosebleed. Other schools of thought hold that Attila, planning to march on Constantinople for a second time, was poisoned by his latest wife Ildico (a known Roman agent). Or he may simply have died from a cerebral haemmorhage caused by a night of heavy drinking and sexual activity. Following Attila's death, the Huns fractured into warring groups and ceased to threaten the Empire - but the Western Empire, by this point, had already ceased to be anything more than a ceremonial ideal.

Attila's death the next winter is traditionally interpreted as an ironic ar rather pathetic end for the Scourge of God - dying of a nosebleed. Other schools of thought hold that Attila, planning to march on Constantinople for a second time, was poisoned by his latest wife Ildico (a known Roman agent). Or he may simply have died from a cerebral haemmorhage caused by a night of heavy drinking and sexual activity. Following Attila's death, the Huns fractured into warring groups and ceased to threaten the Empire - but the Western Empire, by this point, had already ceased to be anything more than a ceremonial ideal.

''7. Julius Caesar: a hero or a villain? Explain.''  

''7. Julius Caesar: a hero or a villain? Explain.''  

Caesar was neither hero nor villain. History is not black and white; it is always a shade of grey. Caesar committed atrocities (famously writing to the Senate that he "killed a million Gauls, and enslaved a million more), and annexed territories while dismantling the Senate apparatus in order to accumulate personal power; yet Caesar also improved living conditions for the free citizens of the Empire and reformed the decaying administrative apparatus of the government. Subjectivity is to be avoided in history; and taking an objective view of Caesar as neither angel nor demon arguably more useful to historians than risking Presentism by imposing modern dichotomies of good and evil upon a society now millennia old.

Caesar was neither hero nor villain. History is not black and white; it is always a shade of grey. Caesar committed atrocities (famously writing to the Senate that he "killed a million Gauls, and enslaved a million more), and annexed territories while dismantling the Senate apparatus in order to accumulate personal power; yet Caesar also improved living conditions for the free citizens of the Empire and reformed the decaying administrative apparatus of the government. Subjectivity is to be avoided in history; and taking an objective view of Caesar as neither angel nor demon arguably more useful to historians than risking Presentism by imposing modern dichotomies of good and evil upon a society now millennia old.

'''Honors Questions (answer any 2 in addition to the above questions)'''  

'''Honors Questions (answer any 2 in addition to the above questions)'''  

An alternative (and theologically much better) explanation is provided by St Thomas Aquinas in Book II:8 of Summa Theologiae (c.1274). Aquinas reasons that Pilate was indeed trying to persuade Jesus to lie. By confessing to the lesser (corporal) crime of claiming to being King of the Jews, he would only receive a flogging, while if he continued evading the "truth", he would be found guilty of the more serious (indeed, capital) crime of inciting riot against the Roman authorities. So according to Aquinas, Pilate was urging Jesus to lie in order to save his skin. Aquinas concludes that Jesus refused Pilate's invitation to lie - not only because Jesus was destined to die as part of the Grand Plan, but because he had to die without committing a single sin. So even had he wanted to, Jesus couldn't lie and confess to the lesser crime. This forced Jesus to endure a terrible death but that was necessary for our salvation, and Jesus was unable to lie so that he could die without a single stain on his soul and thus save us from our sins.  

An alternative (and theologically much better) explanation is provided by St Thomas Aquinas in Book II:8 of Summa Theologiae (c.1274). Aquinas reasons that Pilate was indeed trying to persuade Jesus to lie. By confessing to the lesser (corporal) crime of claiming to being King of the Jews, he would only receive a flogging, while if he continued evading the "truth", he would be found guilty of the more serious (indeed, capital) crime of inciting riot against the Roman authorities. So according to Aquinas, Pilate was urging Jesus to lie in order to save his skin. Aquinas concludes that Jesus refused Pilate's invitation to lie - not only because Jesus was destined to die as part of the Grand Plan, but because he had to die without committing a single sin. So even had he wanted to, Jesus couldn't lie and confess to the lesser crime. This forced Jesus to endure a terrible death but that was necessary for our salvation, and Jesus was unable to lie so that he could die without a single stain on his soul and thus save us from our sins.  

''H2. Which was more influential, the Roman law or the Roman legions?''  

''H2. Which was more influential, the Roman law or the Roman legions?''  

It is arguable that both the legions and the laws were equally important. Roman law had a far longer legacy as it alloed the Empire to Romanise its provinces and allow Roman control without the need for large garrisons, and Roman law forms the basis for continental Europe's legal systems to this day (including the resucitation of the Roman Empire - the European Union!). Recall Edward Bulwer-Lytton's assertion that "The pen is mightier than the sword". However, also recall Cicero's quip that ''"Inter arma, silent leges est"'' - "In times of war, the law is silent". Roman law would not have become so deeply entrenched in European culture had it not been for the absorbtion of most of Europe into the imperium. It is therefore fair to state that Roman laws and Roman legions were equally important, as each required the other in order to endure.

It is arguable that both the legions and the laws were equally important. Roman law had a far longer legacy as it alloed the Empire to Romanise its provinces and allow Roman control without the need for large garrisons, and Roman law forms the basis for continental Europe's legal systems to this day (including the resucitation of the Roman Empire - the European Union!). Recall Edward Bulwer-Lytton's assertion that "The pen is mightier than the sword". However, also recall Cicero's quip that ''"Inter arma, silent leges est"'' - "In times of war, the law is silent". Roman law would not have become so deeply entrenched in European culture had it not been for the absorbtion of most of Europe into the imperium. It is therefore fair to state that Roman laws and Roman legions were equally important, as each required the other in order to endure.

''H4. The decline and fall of the Roman empire: what do you think was its biggest cause?''

''H4. The decline and fall of the Roman empire: what do you think was its biggest cause?''

Personally, I subscribe to the Pirenne Thesis. This theory, which appeared in the 1920s and has been adopted and adapted since, basically answers the question "Why did Rome fall?" with the answer "It didn't". Henri Pirenne began with the premise that the purported Fall was in fact simply a change. History, after all, is the story of change, and change is inevitable in all things. Taking this as a foundational basis, Pirenne looked at the Roman Empire at various stages and concluded that rather than the Empire entering a period of decline, it simply morphed from the ancient, slave-based Republic to pseudo-Republican/pseudo-medieval Empire, and then into medieval feudal serfdom as provinces looked to their own survival in the face of various changes and an uncaring, incompetent central government. Consider the Empire under Augustus (1 AD); still very much a Republic, with the legions and the temples and all the trappings of Rome we see in films. Now, consider the Empire in 200 AD; very different. Its economic structure, its social hierarchy, its religions, had all changed significantly. By the time Diocletian became Emperor, Rome already resembled more of a medieval kingdom than the ancient Rpublic. Now, consider the Empire in 400 AD; it still existed, but was very different again. The fashions, the faiths, the economy and the social order - even the dominant cities - had changed even further. The Rome of 450 AD was almost unrecognisable next to the Rome of 50 BC. If we forget the concept of a "Fall" and look at Europe in 600 AD, we see this pattern continuing to happen. Pirenne pointed to the continuations - Roman religion, language, culture, architecture, and even institutions continued ''after'' the Empire officially ended. The Europe of 400 AD was very different to the evolved Europe of 600 AD, which was very different to the evolved Europe of 800 AD when Charlemagne was crowned the new Roman Emperor. What is crucial in this, is that the changes were not random and unpredictable; Pirenne saw them as the continuation of traits stretching back to Republican Rome. Perhaps the Empire did not decline and fall - it simply changed.

Personally, I subscribe to the Pirenne Thesis. This theory, which appeared in the 1920s and has been adopted and adapted since, basically answers the question "Why did Rome fall?" with the answer "It didn't". Henri Pirenne began with the premise that the purported Fall was in fact simply a change. History, after all, is the story of change, and change is inevitable in all things. Taking this as a foundational basis, Pirenne looked at the Roman Empire at various stages and concluded that rather than the Empire entering a period of decline, it simply morphed from the ancient, slave-based Republic to pseudo-Republican/pseudo-medieval Empire, and then into medieval feudal serfdom as provinces looked to their own survival in the face of various changes and an uncaring, incompetent central government. Consider the Empire under Augustus (1 AD); still very much a Republic, with the legions and the temples and all the trappings of Rome we see in films. Now, consider the Empire in 200 AD; very different. Its economic structure, its social hierarchy, its religions, had all changed significantly. By the time Diocletian became Emperor, Rome already resembled more of a medieval kingdom than the ancient Rpublic. Now, consider the Empire in 400 AD; it still existed, but was very different again. The fashions, the faiths, the economy and the social order - even the dominant cities - had changed even further. The Rome of 450 AD was almost unrecognisable next to the Rome of 50 BC. If we forget the concept of a "Fall" and look at Europe in 600 AD, we see this pattern continuing to happen. Pirenne pointed to the continuations - Roman religion, language, culture, architecture, and even institutions continued ''after'' the Empire officially ended. The Europe of 400 AD was very different to the evolved Europe of 600 AD, which was very different to the evolved Europe of 800 AD when Charlemagne was crowned the new Roman Emperor. What is crucial in this, is that the changes were not random and unpredictable; Pirenne saw them as the continuation of traits stretching back to Republican Rome. Perhaps the Empire did not decline and fall - it simply changed.