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===Scholasticism===

===Scholasticism===

Scholasticism strengthened understanding of Christian doctrine through careful definition and systematic argument.  It flourished during the 1100s and 1200s, combining the logic of the classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology.  '''The Scholastics were divided into two groups, the realists (preferring the works of Plato) and the nominalists (preferring Aristotle’s teachings).'''   

Scholasticism strengthened understanding of Christian doctrine through systematic arguments based on careful definitions.  It flourished during the 1100s and 1200s, combining the logic of the classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology.  '''The Scholastics were divided into two groups, the realists (preferring the works of Plato) and the nominalists (preferring Aristotle’s teachings).'''   

Saint Anselm (1033-1109), born in northern Italy, was an early intellectual giant of scholasticism.  Anselm preferred to defend Christianity through use of powerful logical arguments, rather than relying entirely and solely on scripture.  Anselm is famous for developing the first '''“ontological” argument, which is an argument attempting to prove the existence of God by reasoning from the definition of God. '''  

Saint Anselm (1033-1109), born in northern Italy, was an early intellectual giant of scholasticism.  Anselm preferred to defend Christianity through use of powerful logical arguments, rather than relying entirely and solely on scripture.  Anselm is famous for developing the first '''“ontological” argument, which is an argument attempting to prove the existence of God by reasoning from the definition of God. '''  

Aquinas was controversial during his life, and became more respected only after his death.  He developed five new proofs for the existence of God using logic.  The first three were “cosmological” proofs rather than the “ontological” approach of Anselm.  A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe.  Aquinas’ most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents).  They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents).  But this sequence cannot go on to infinity.  There must have been a first mover.  This we call “God”.  As with Anselm, Aquinas used logic to enhance religious beliefs.

Aquinas was controversial during his life, and became more respected only after his death.  He developed five new proofs for the existence of God using logic.  The first three were “cosmological” proofs rather than the “ontological” approach of Anselm.  A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe.  Aquinas’ most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents).  They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents).  But this sequence cannot go on to infinity.  There must have been a first mover.  This we call “God”.  As with Anselm, Aquinas used logic to enhance religious beliefs.

Thomas Aquinas’ views on the nature of man included a unique interpretation of the Fall of Man, which some criticize as being an incomplete view.  Aquinas believed that while men had rebelled against God and the human will was fallen, the human intellect remained perfect.  Therefore, human wisdom could be relied upon and given as much prominence as the teachings of the Bible.  This idea justified mixing the works of the classical, secular philosophers into Christian theology.  Under this view, the authority of the church became as important, if not more so, than that of the Bible.  These ideas set the stage for humanism, which was the predominant philosophy of the Renaissance.  

Thomas Aquinas’ views on the nature of man included a unique interpretation of the Fall of Man, which some criticize as being an incomplete view.  Aquinas believed that while men had rebelled against God and the human will was fallen, the human intellect remained perfect.  Therefore, human wisdom could be relied upon and given as much prominence as the teachings of the Bible.  This idea justified mixing the works of the classical, secular philosophers into Christian theology.  Under this view, the authority of the church became as important, if not more so, than that of the Bible.  These ideas set the stage for humanism, which became the predominant philosophy of the Renaissance.  

Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the devil cannot withstand mockery.  Mockery can be useful in defeating a bad idea or temptation.   

Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the devil cannot withstand mockery.  Mockery can be useful in defeating a bad idea or temptation.   

While powerful nation-states were developing in Europe, absolutist empires were spreading throughout the East, and Islam was growing rapidly.  In present-day Turkey, in a region known as “Anatolia,” Muslim warriors called “ghazi” arose, seeking to conquer land belonging to infidels, or people of non-Islamic faith.  A famous ghazi named Osmen Bey began the Ottoman empire.  The strongest characteristic of the Ottoman and other Asian empires of the time was their use of gunpowder, which gave rise to the term “gunpowder empires.”  Under Ottoman rule, non-Muslims had to pay a tax to avoid military service, which was mandatory for Muslims.  Slaves called “janissaries” were also used as warriors.

While powerful nation-states were developing in Europe, absolutist empires were spreading throughout the East, and Islam was growing rapidly.  In present-day Turkey, in a region known as “Anatolia,” Muslim warriors called “ghazi” arose, seeking to conquer land belonging to infidels, or people of non-Islamic faith.  A famous ghazi named Osmen Bey began the Ottoman empire.  The strongest characteristic of the Ottoman and other Asian empires of the time was their use of gunpowder, which gave rise to the term “gunpowder empires.”  Under Ottoman rule, non-Muslims had to pay a tax to avoid military service, which was mandatory for Muslims.  Slaves called “janissaries” were also used as warriors.

In 1453 Ottoman sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople, and tore the cross off the top of the Hagia Sophia, declaring the Christian church to be a mosque.  Selim the Grim and Suleiman I followed, expanding the Ottoman territories into an empire comprising Constantinople (now Istanbul), Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Greece and even parts of Hungary and Austria.  The height of the Ottoman empire existed during the reign of Suleiman I, which lasted from A.D. 1520 to 1566.  Suleiman was known by Europeans as “the Magnificent” because of the splendor of his reign, but he had the greatest historical influence as a provider of laws and legal standards.  His picture can be found in the United States Supreme Court alongside those of Moses, Thomas Jefferson and Solon.  Called “people of the book,” Christians and Jews were allowed to practice their religions under Ottoman rule.

In 1453 Ottoman sultan Mehmed II captured Constantinople, and tore the cross off the top of the Hagia Sophia, declaring the Christian church to be a mosque.  Selim the Grim and Suleiman I followed, expanding the Ottoman territories into an empire comprising Constantinople (now Istanbul), Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa, Greece and even parts of Hungary and Austria.  '''The height of the Ottoman empire existed during the reign of Suleiman I, which lasted from A.D. 1520 to 1566'''.  Suleiman was known by Europeans as “the Magnificent” because of the splendor of his reign, but he had the greatest historical influence as a provider of laws and legal standards.  His picture can be found in the United States Supreme Court alongside those of Moses, Thomas Jefferson and Solon.  Called “people of the book,” Christians and Jews were allowed to practice their religions under Ottoman rule.

There were other Islamic empires in addition to the Ottoman empire: the Islamic empires of Safavid and Mughal.  The Safavid dynasty, located in northwest Persia, was founded by a 14-year old “shah” (king) named Ismail (another spelling of the biblical name “Ishmael”) who conquered the Seljuk Turks in North India.  The Shi’ite Safavids fought with the Sunni Ottomans for 200 years.  Safavid Shah Abbas the Great saw the peak of the Safavid Empire during his reign from 1588-1629, and established trade with Europe.

There were other Islamic empires in addition to the Ottoman empire: the Islamic empires of Safavid and Mughal.  The Safavid dynasty, located in northwest Persia, was founded by a 14-year old “shah” (king) named Ismail (another spelling of the biblical name “Ishmael”), who conquered the Seljuk Turks in North India.  The Shi’ite Safavids fought with the Sunni Ottomans for 200 years.  Safavid Shah Abbas the Great saw the peak of the Safavid Empire during his reign from 1588-1629, and established trade with Europe.

The beginnings of the Mughal Empire, located in India, were established by Babur around A.D. 1525.  Under the reign of Babur’s grandson Akbar (1556-1605), the Mughal Empire experienced its “Golden Age,” during which taxes were decreased.  The languages spoken were Persian, Hindi (still spoken in India today), and Urdu (a new language combining Persian, Hindi, and Arabic characters, and today it is Pakistan’s official language).  Other religions were tolerated under Akbar’s rule, but not under Aurangzeb’s notoriously intolerant rule (from 1659-1707), during which Hindus were taxed and their temples torn down.  This caused discord in the Mughal Empire, and resulted in an uprising of the previously non-violent Hindi-Muslim Sikhs.   

The beginnings of the Mughal Empire, located in India, were established by Babur around A.D. 1525.  Under the reign of Babur’s grandson Akbar (1556-1605), the Mughal Empire experienced its “Golden Age,” during which taxes were decreased.  The languages spoken were Persian, Hindi (still spoken in India today), and Urdu (a new language combining Persian, Hindi, and Arabic characters, and today it is Pakistan’s official language).  Other religions were tolerated under Akbar’s rule, but not under Aurangzeb’s notoriously intolerant rule (from 1659-1707), during which Hindus were taxed and their temples torn down.  This caused discord in the Mughal Empire, and resulted in an uprising of the previously non-violent Hindi-Muslim Sikhs.   

Contributions of these Islamic empires include the stunningly beautiful Taj Mahal, an enormous tomb built of pure white marble beginning in 1631 by Akbar’s grandson Shah Jahan for his beloved wife.  The construction of the Taj Mahal in India took 18 years, and 20,000 workers were used.  Jahan was so overwhelmed with its beauty, and so cruel to its workers, that he had their hands cut off so they would never build another one like it!  Jahan also constructed the “Red Fort,” a red-sandstone palace and the “Peacock Throne,” encrusted with thousands of gems.  Many beautiful mosques and palaces were built in Constantinople under Ottoman rule, many designed by artist and architect Pasha Sinan.  The most famous Ottoman form of art was the blue-and-white pottery of Iznik.

Contributions of these Islamic empires include the stunningly beautiful Taj Mahal, an enormous tomb built of pure white marble beginning in 1631 by Akbar’s grandson Shah Jahan for his beloved wife.  The construction of the Taj Mahal in India took 18 years, and 20,000 workers were used.  Jahan was so overwhelmed with its beauty, and so cruel to its workers, that he had their hands cut off so they would never build another one like it!  Jahan also constructed the “Red Fort,” a red-sandstone palace and the “Peacock Throne,” encrusted with thousands of gems.  Many beautiful mosques and palaces were built in Constantinople under Ottoman rule, many designed by artist and architect Pasha Sinan.  The most famous Ottoman form of art was the blue-and-white pottery of Iznik.

The Islamic empires participated in international trade (especially the Ottomans and Safavids), but did not participate in trade as much as the Europeans did.  The Islamic empires also resisted technological advances that flourished in Europe, such as the printing press.  In dar-al Islam (lands under Islamic control), western technology was disfavored.  These factors, combined with prolonged periods of warfare, eventually led to the downfall of the Islamic empires.

The Islamic empires participated in international trade (especially the Ottomans and Safavids), but did not participate in trade as much as the Europeans did.  The Islamic empires also resisted technological advances that flourished in Europe, such as the printing press.  In dar-al Islam (lands under Islamic control), western technology was disfavored.  These factors, combined with prolonged periods of warfare, eventually led to the downfall of these Islamic empires.

==Africa==

==Africa==