Changes

===Writers===

===Writers===

'''Dante (1265-1321) was an early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence'''.  (The Italian town of Florence was considered the cradle of the Renaissance by 1425, but Venice and Rome became just as successful by the early 1500s.)  Dante wrote in the Italian language of the time (the local language, in this case Italian, is known as "the vernacular,") rather than in ancient Latin.  Dante described the path of a soul to salvation in ''The Divine Comedy'', in which Dante travels through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).  In this journey, Dante is first guided by the Roman epic poet Virgil, and then he is later guided by a girl he loved as a youth, named Beatrice, who had tragically died in real life.  The account of Hell is known as ''Dante’s Inferno'', and it is frightful.  Throughout history Hell was emphasized far more than it is today; almost no one mentions Hell in Church anymore now, and people may be worse off from the silence.

'''Dante (1265-1321) was an early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence'''.  (The Italian town of Florence was considered the cradle of the Renaissance by 1425, but Venice and Rome became just as successful by the early 1500s.)  Rather than writing in Latin, Dante wrote in his local Italian language (a local language is known as "the vernacular").  Dante described the path of a soul to salvation in ''The Divine Comedy'', in which Dante travels through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).  In this journey, Dante is first guided by the Roman epic poet Virgil, and then he is later guided by a girl he loved as a youth, named Beatrice, who had tragically died in real life.  The account of Hell is known as ''Dante’s Inferno'', and it is frightful.  Throughout Christian history Hell was emphasized far more than it is today.

'''Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) wrote ''The Prince'', which is an account of government by which the "end justifies the means" (in other words, a ruler can use any means to gain power and rule his state)'''.  Even today the term "Machiavellian" is used to criticize a politician who spends all his time and effort on getting ahead and manipulating other people for his own gain.  A "Machiavellian" politician is a cunning person who will say or do anything if he thinks it brings him political benefit.  For centuries the reputation of Machiavelli was that he had been inspired by the devil.  Like other Renaissance artists and thinkers, Machiavelli lived in Florence.

'''Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) wrote ''The Prince'', which is an account of government by which the "end justifies the means" (such that a politician uses any means, even dishonesty, to gain power)'''.  Even today the term "Machiavellian" is used to criticize a politician who spends all his time and effort on getting ahead and manipulating other people for his own gain.  A "Machiavellian" politician is a cunning person who will say or do anything if he thinks it brings him political benefit.  For centuries the reputation of Machiavelli was that he had been inspired by the devil.  Like other Renaissance artists and thinkers, Machiavelli lived in Florence.

Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374) was another poet of Florence, a devout Christian who saw no conflict between religious faith and fully developing man’s potential.  He wrote in Latin rather than the Italian vernacular and, being a colorful person, he even wrote a few letters to Virgil and Cicero of Ancient Rome (who of course did not respond!).  Petrarch also wrote romantic poems about a woman named “Laura” based on merely seeing her once in church.

'''Francesco Petrarch''' (1304-1374) was another poet of Florence, a devout Christian who saw no conflict between religious faith and fully developing man’s potential.  He wrote in Latin rather than the Italian vernacular and, being a colorful person, he even wrote a few letters to Virgil and Cicero of Ancient Rome (who of course did not respond!).  Petrarch also wrote romantic poems about a woman named “Laura” based on merely seeing her once in church.

===The Philosophy of the Renaissance===

===The Philosophy of the Renaissance===

The Renaissance was led by devout Christians who looked to Jesus for inspiration.  None of the leading Renaissance artists or writers were atheists or anti-Christians.  Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were as Christian as anyone.  Their Christian faith was the wellspring for their creativity and intellectual achievements.

The Renaissance was led by devout Christians who looked to Jesus for inspiration.  None of the leading Renaissance artists or writers were atheists or anti-Christians.  Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci were as Christian as anyone.  Their Christian faith was the wellspring for their creativity and intellectual achievements.

But many historians are hostile to Christianity, and they do not want to credit Christianity for the stunning achievements of the Renaissance.  Accordingly, they claim that the Renaissance embraced “humanism”, which favored the capacity of man to reason and think for himself without reliance on Christianity.  There is no single definition for “humanism”, and the philosophical term was not used during the Renaissance.  But any view that looks to “humans” as the sole source of value can be called “humanist”.

Under an anti-Christian view of history, the Renaissance consisted of moving away from a spiritual view that characterized the Middle Ages, to a focus on material, earthly things ("humanism").  It is true that the Renaissance men wrote about and painted everyday things, such as the woman depicted in the Mona Lisa.  It is also true that the study of nature and science began to become fields of endeavor of their own, and art and literature focused more on the present life than the afterlife.  But the great artists and thinkers of the Renaissance were inspired by Christianity in performing their works, and the objects of their work were men and women created in the image of God (in contrast with paintings of nature, which were rare at this time).  There was nothing anti-religious about the Renaissance.  Perhaps 90% or more of its achievements were inspired by Christian beliefs and faith.

Under an anti-Christian view of history, emphasis  in the Renaissance moved away from the focus on spiritual things that was characteristic of the Middle Ages, to a focus on material, earthly things.  It is true that the Renaissance men wrote about and painted everyday things, such as the woman depicted in the Mona Lisa.  It is also true that the study of nature and science began to become fields of endeavor of their own, and art and literature focused more on the present life than the afterlife.  But the great artists and thinkers of the Renaissance were inspired by Christianity in performing their works, and the objects of their work were men and women created in the image of God (in contrast with paintings of nature, which were rare at this time).  There was nothing at all anti-religious or humanist about the Renaissance.  Perhaps 90% or more of its achievements were inspired by Christian beliefs and faith.

Centuries after the Renaissance, secularism did creep in.  Secularism is defined as preoccupation with the material world at the expense of the heavenly one.  This caused people to become increasingly materialistic.  The teachings of the Bible lost importance to some.  Some people rejected religion altogether, becoming “secular humanists.” But even later, the greatest scientific works were by devout Christians like Isaac Newton and Louis Pasteur.

Some suggest that materialism crept into the Church when the extravagant Medici Pope Leo X spent more money than several previous popes combined.  The selling of indulgences to fund church building projects, explained further below, spawned the Protestant Reformation.  But even materialism in building magnificent churches or funding artists like Michelangelo is not the same as the atheistic philosophy of humanism.

 

Some suggest that materialism crept into the Church when the extravagant Medici Pope Leo X spent more money than several previous popes combined.  The selling of indulgences to fund church building projects, explained further below, spawned the Protestant Reformation.  But even materialism in building magnificent churches or funding artists like Michelangelo is not the same as the atheistic philosophy of humanism.  The claim that humanism was part of the Renaissance is anti-Christian “historical revisionism” (an alteration of history for improper purposes).

===The Northern Renaissance===

===The Northern Renaissance===

The heart of the Renaissance was in Italy, but there were also great artists and thinkers in northern Europe (primarily the Netherlands and Germany) who built on the achievements of those in Italy.  Their achievements are known as the “Northern Renaissance.”

The heart of the Renaissance was in Italy, but there were also great artists and thinkers in northern Europe (primarily the Netherlands and Germany) who built on the achievements of those in Italy.  Their achievements are known as the “Northern Renaissance.”

The leading thinker of the Northern Renaissance was Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) in the Netherlands.  He wanted more spirituality in the Catholic Church and urged a greater emphasis on the teachings of Jesus.  He published a Greek edition of the New Testament, and was the first scholar to become famous through use of the printing press, developed in Germany in 1447 during the Northern Renaissance.  Erasmus also wrote satires about the Church that led others to criticize it, but Erasmus condemned Luther and strenuously opposed the Reformation.

'''The leading thinker of the Northern Renaissance was Desiderius Erasmus''' (1466-1536) in the Netherlands.  He wanted more spirituality in the Catholic Church and urged a greater emphasis on the teachings of Jesus.  He published a Greek edition of the New Testament, and was the first scholar to become famous through''' use of the printing press, developed in Germany in 1447''' during the Northern Renaissance.  Erasmus also wrote satires about the Church that led others to criticize it, but Erasmus condemned Luther and strenuously opposed the Reformation.

Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) was the leading artist in Germany, copying the style of the High Renaissance that combined grace and extreme elegance, a style known as “Mannerism”.  Durer created famous woodcuts and copper engravings.

'''Albrecht Durer''' (1471-1528) was the leading artist in Germany, copying the style of the High Renaissance that combined grace and extreme elegance, a style known as “Mannerism”.  Durer created famous woodcuts and copper engravings.

The greatest painter in all of Northern Europe was the Dutch (Netherlands) artist Rembrandt (1606-1669), who drew many great portraits known for their depiction of light and shadow.  The increased number of portraits by Rembrandt and others demonstrated the new emphasis on individualism in the Renaissance.  Other great painters included Jan Van Eyck (1400s) and Pieter Bruegel (mid-1500s), both of Flanders (a region from parts of the Netherlands, Belgium and France today).

'''The greatest painter in all of Northern Europe was the Dutch (Netherlands) artist Rembrandt''' (1606-1669), who drew many great portraits known for their depiction of light and shadow.  The increased number of portraits by Rembrandt and others demonstrated the new emphasis on individualism in the Renaissance.  Other great painters included '''Jan Van Eyck''' (1400s) and '''Pieter Bruegel''' (mid-1500s), both of Flanders (a region from parts of the Netherlands, Belgium and France today).

In England, William Shakespeare (1564-1616) became the greatest playwright in the history of the world, and Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a leading English statesman, writer and philosopher, who rose to become Lord Chancellor (1618) until he was impeached in 1621 for accepting bribes.

In England, '''William Shakespeare (1564-1616) became the greatest playwright in the history of the world''', and Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a leading English statesman, writer and philosopher, who rose to become Lord Chancellor (1618) until he was impeached in 1621 for accepting bribes.

Francois Rabelais (early 1500s) was a leading French thinker and writer.

Francois Rabelais (early 1500s) was a leading French thinker and writer.

==Reformation==

==Reformation==

Schisms in Christianity had previously occurred in the Middle Ages, most notably between the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the East.  But throughout the Middle Ages, from A.D. 500 to 1500, the Holy Roman Empire maintained one Christian church in western and northern Europe, based in Rome, under the leadership and authority of one, usually undisputed pope.

Schisms in Christianity had previously occurred in the Middle Ages, most notably between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church.  But throughout the Middle Ages, from A.D. 500 to 1500, the Holy Roman Empire maintained one Christian church in western and northern Europe, based in Rome, under the leadership and authority of a pope.

As the independent power of England and the German territory grew, it seems doubtful that the King of England and powerful German princes would accept the authority of any religious leader in Rome forever.  Kings and princes do not usually like being told what to do, and a big disagreement is usually resolved in favor of the person having the biggest army.  Even what appears to be a little disagreement, such as a dispute over the use of icons, can provide the spark for a separation that was already festering for decades or centuries.  Peoples who speak different languages and have different cultures are difficult to hold together in one organization.

As the independent power of England and the German territory grew, it seems doubtful that the King of England and powerful German princes would accept the authority of any religious leader in Rome forever.  Kings and princes do not usually like being told what to do, and a big disagreement is usually resolved in favor of the person having the biggest army.  Even what appears to be a little disagreement, such as a dispute over the use of icons, can spark a separation that was already festering for decades or centuries.  Peoples who speak different languages and have different cultures are difficult to hold together in one organization.

The "Great Schism" was between East and West.  Now we consider disagreements within Christianity in the West, which became known as the "Reformation".

The "Great Schism" was between East and West.  Now we consider disagreements within Christianity in the West, which became known as the "Reformation".