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== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

On September 11, 1683, Muslims made a second major attempt to conquer Europe (recall that Charles the Hammer turned back their first attempt).  A massive Islamic army arrived at the Gates of Vienna.  An alliance of Christian armies, led by the Polish King Jan III Sobieski, defeated the Muslim force.<ref>http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2006/09/other-september-11th.html</ref>  Some have observed that the "9/11" massacre in New York City was on the anniversary of this day.

Three times during the 1500s and 1600s, Muslims attempted unsuccessfully to conquer Europe (recall that centuries earlier Charles the Hammer turned back their first attempt).  Europeans defeated the Muslim Ottoman Turks at the Siege of Vienna in 1529?  Then Europeans also prevailed against Muslim forces at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571.

 

On September 11, 1683, Muslims made another major attempt to conquer Europe, as a massive Islamic army arrived at the Gates of Vienna.  An alliance of Christian armies, led by the Polish King Jan III Sobieski, defeated the Muslim force.<ref>http://gatesofvienna.blogspot.com/2006/09/other-september-11th.html</ref>  Some have observed that the "9/11" massacre in New York City was on the anniversary of this day.

Two other momentous events happened in the 1600s which would also affect the world forever.  In 1607, Englishmen established a permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.  In 1611, the King James Bible was published with this introduction:<ref name="KJV">http://www.av1611.org/kjv/kjvhist.html</ref>

Two other momentous events happened in the 1600s which would also affect the world forever.  In 1607, Englishmen established a permanent settlement at Jamestown, Virginia.  In 1611, the King James Bible was published with this introduction:<ref name="KJV">http://www.av1611.org/kjv/kjvhist.html</ref>

With the King James Bible as the "gold standard" for proper English, the language then grew upon this foundation at a rate of about 1000 new words per year.<ref>See [[Essay:Best New Conservative Words]].</ref>  This enables English to constantly improve its ability to express concepts.  English easily incorporates and adapts words from other languages, such as "detente" (French for a lessening in tensions between nations) and "tsunami" (Japanese for a massive tidal wave).

With the King James Bible as the "gold standard" for proper English, the language then grew upon this foundation at a rate of about 1000 new words per year.<ref>See [[Essay:Best New Conservative Words]].</ref>  This enables English to constantly improve its ability to express concepts.  English easily incorporates and adapts words from other languages, such as "detente" (French for a lessening in tensions between nations) and "tsunami" (Japanese for a massive tidal wave).

English has the smallest alphabet of widely used languages;<ref>Some describe the Hebrew alphabet, without vowels, as having only 22 characters, but modern Hebrew (spoken by a few million people) has more characters than English.  See http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm . The obscure [[Elder Futhark]] runic writing has an alphabet of 24.</ref> this compact simplicity gives English an advantage, particularly in using computers.  For example, modern English lacks accented letters (letters bearing a diacritic mark such as the "e" in "noël"), hybrid letters (such as the archaic digraph ligature æ used in British English in words such as encyclopædia or the ampersand character - a contraction of "et"), and pictograph characters.

English has the smallest alphabet of widely used languages;<ref>Some describe the Hebrew alphabet, without vowels, as having only 22 characters, but modern Hebrew (spoken by a few million people) has more characters than English.  See http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm .</ref> this compact simplicity gives English an advantage, particularly in using computers.  For example, modern English lacks accented letters (such as the dots over the "e" in "noël"), hybrid letters (such as the "æ" used in British spelling like "encyclopædia"), and pictograph characters.

English features easy interchangeability of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, without much variance in form for pronouns and verbs. That promotes easy communication through brief, cryptic messages if necessary, the style preferred by electronic media.  English enjoys a powerful pipe-like quality, such that one phrase can be cut and pasted to another phrase with ease.  Computer-based cutting and pasting text works more efficiently in English than in many other languages, such as those using pictorial characters. This gives English an advantage in the internet medium, and about 80% of the internet uses English. English is now the second most widely spoken language in the world, with only Chinese dialects spoken by more people. English is overwhelmingly the second language of choice for non-English-speaking people.<ref>See Barbara Wallraff, “What Global Language?” 286 Atlantic Monthly No. 5, at 52 (Nov. 2000) (noting that “English is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN” and is also “the official language of the European Central Bank”).</ref>

English features easy interchangeability of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, without much variance in form for pronouns and verbs. That promotes communication through brief, cryptic messages if necessary, the style preferred by electronic media.  English enjoys a powerful pipe-like quality, such that one phrase can be cut and pasted to another phrase with ease.  Computer-based cutting and pasting text works more efficiently in English than in many other languages, such as those using pictorial characters. This gives English an advantage in the internet medium, and about 80% of the internet uses English. English is now the second most widely spoken language in the world, with only Chinese dialects spoken by more people. English is overwhelmingly the second language of choice for non-English-speaking people.<ref>See Barbara Wallraff, “What Global Language?” 286 Atlantic Monthly No. 5, at 52 (Nov. 2000) (noting that “English is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN” and is also “the official language of the European Central Bank”).</ref>

==The Age of Exploration==

==The Age of Exploration==

The “Age of Exploration” consisted of Christians from Europe searching the rest of our globe to spread the faith and seek wealth, particularly between 1450 and 1650.  This began the “Global Age” in world history, which continues to this day.

The “Age of Exploration” consisted of Christians from Europe searching the rest of our globe to spread the faith and seek wealth, '''particularly between 1450 and 1650'''.  This began the “Global Age” in world history, which continues to this day.

As Europe was emerging from the Middle Ages and experiencing the Renaissance, people had the curiosity and the courage to look beyond their own continent to others.  Scientific discoveries and technological improvements made it easier to travel across the vast oceans.  Christians sought to spread their faith far and wide, and merchants sought new goods and business opportunities in both the East and West.  North and South America awaited visits by the Europeans.

As Europe was emerging from the Middle Ages and experiencing the Renaissance, people had the curiosity and the courage to look beyond their own continent.  Scientific discoveries and technological improvements made it easier to travel across the vast oceans.  Christians sought to spread their faith far and wide, and merchants sought new goods and business opportunities in both the East and West.  North and South America awaited visits by the Europeans.

[[Image:Caravel.jpg|right|thumb|A caravel]]

[[Image:Caravel.jpg|right|thumb|A caravel]]

The Portuguese were the first great explorers.  They developed the “caravel”, a small, lightweight ship with three lateen-sailed masts that were faster and more maneuverable in shallow water than previous designs (see right).  They could also hold a fair amount of spices, and the more cargo that a ship could hold, the greater its profitability would be.  European demand for exotic Indian goods, especially spices, was strong, and this drove explorers to discover new routes to India different from the Eastern Mediterranean trade controlled by the Ottoman Muslims.   

The Portuguese were the first great explorers.  They developed the “caravel”, a small, lightweight ship with three lateen-sailed masts that were faster and more maneuverable in shallow water than previous designs (see right).  They could also hold a fair amount of spices, and the more cargo that a ship could hold, the greater its profitability would be.  European demand for exotic Indian goods, especially spices, was strong, and this drove explorers to discover new routes to India different from the Eastern Mediterranean trade controlled by the Ottoman Muslims.   

===Exploration by Other Nations, and the Seven Years War===

===Exploration by Other Nations, and the Seven Years War===

Other European nations participated in exploration as well.  King Henry VII of England sent John Cabot, a resident of London born in Genoa (like Columbus), to explore across the Northern Atlantic Ocean.  Cabot discovered Newfoundland and the New England coast in 1497 and 1498, respectively, and the land became the property of England.  From France, Jacques Cartier discovered Canada and the Mississippi Basin, including Louisiana in 1534 and 1541.  These colonies were initially less significant than those in South America, and there was a lack of initial interest in North America because it did not have the gold and silver of South America.  Whereas intermarriage and cultural blending occurred heavily among the Spanish and the Indians in South America, it barely existed between the English or French and the Indians in North America.   

Other European nations participated in exploration as well.  King Henry VII of England sent John Cabot, a resident of London born in Genoa (like Columbus), to explore across the Northern Atlantic Ocean.  Cabot discovered Newfoundland and the New England coast in 1497 and 1498, respectively, and the land became the property of England.  From France, Jacques Cartier discovered Canada and the Mississippi Basin, including Louisiana in 1534 and 1541.  These colonies were initially less significant than those in South America, and there was a lack of interest in North America because it did not have the gold and silver of South America.  Whereas intermarriage and cultural blending occurred heavily among the Spanish and the Indians in South America, it barely existed between the English or French and the Indians in North America.   

Of course, eventually the interest and development in North America increased and surpassed that of South America.  Commercial competition between European nations culminated in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) — a conflict brought to America in the form of the French and Indian War.  This War marked the end of French (and Spanish) influence in North America, and signaled the rise of Britain as the primary world superpower for the next 150 years.

Of course, eventually the interest and development in North America increased and surpassed that of South America.  Commercial competition between European nations culminated in the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) — a conflict brought to America in the form of the French and Indian War.  This War marked the end of French (and Spanish) influence in North America, and signaled the rise of Britain as the primary world superpower for the next 150 years.

America had new fruits and vegetables that were then exported to Europe and Africa.  America introduced the white potato to Europe and the manioc or cassava to Africa.  Chili peppers, pumpkins, squash and peanuts were also brought back from America and became popular in countries such as India.  These new foods helped increase population, and in Africa the population growth almost canceled out population losses caused by the slave trade.

America had new fruits and vegetables that were then exported to Europe and Africa.  America introduced the white potato to Europe and the manioc or cassava to Africa.  Chili peppers, pumpkins, squash and peanuts were also brought back from America and became popular in countries such as India.  These new foods helped increase population, and in Africa the population growth almost canceled out population losses caused by the slave trade.

   

   

Slavery, though not considered part of the Columbian Exchange, became a hurtful form of trade.  In 1455, a “papal bull” (formal letter by the pope) justified a “right” of Christian nations to enslave any non-Christians in the name of exploration.  The Spanish had already been enslaving South American natives on a limited basis, but with the rise of sugar plantations the need for a larger slave force arose.  Millions of African slaves were brought by the Spanish and Portuguese to Mexico, Peru, the Caribbean and especially Brazil.  The growth of sugar — which had first been introduced to Europe when the Muslims ruled Spain — was exploding in popularity throughout the entire western world.  Soon France, the Netherlands and Great Britain were also establishing profitable sugar plantations in the new world.  The plantation system began in Brazil, where rich white plantation owners were the highest rung in the social hierarchy and the enslaved Africans were at the bottom.  Obviously life on a sugar plantation was very hard work for a slave.   

Slavery, though not considered part of the Columbian Exchange, became a hurtful form of trade.  In 1455, a “papal bull” (formal letter by the pope) justified a “right” of Christian nations to enslave any non-Christians in the name of exploration.  The Spanish had already been enslaving South American natives on a limited basis, but with the rise of sugar plantations, the need for a larger slave force arose.  Millions of African slaves were brought by the Spanish and Portuguese to Mexico, Peru, the Caribbean and especially Brazil.  The growth of sugar — which had first been introduced to Europe when the Muslims ruled Spain — was exploding in popularity throughout the entire western world.  Soon France, the Netherlands and Great Britain were also establishing profitable sugar plantations in the new world.  The plantation system began in Brazil, where rich white plantation owners were the highest rung in the social hierarchy and the enslaved Africans were at the bottom.  Obviously life on a sugar plantation was very hard work for a slave.   

[[Slavery]] was widespread within Africa itself, and the richest in Africa were not those owning the most land, but those who owned the most slaves.  In the Sahara Desert, slaves worked in caravans and were used in gold and salt mining.  Slaves were usually prisoners of war from other areas of Africa, or debtors, or enemies of the king, but many women outside of those three categories were also enslaved in African societies.  Polygamy — the practice of having more than one wife — was common in Africa, as was the existence of harems, from which African women were often sold to join Arabian or Middle Eastern harems.   

[[Slavery]] was widespread within Africa itself, and the richest in Africa were not those owning the most land, but those who owned the most slaves.  In the Sahara Desert, slaves worked in caravans and were used in gold and salt mining.  Slaves were usually prisoners of war from other areas of Africa, or debtors, or enemies of the king, but many women outside of those three categories were also enslaved in African societies.  Polygamy — the practice of having more than one wife — was common in Africa, as was the existence of harems, from which African women were often sold to join Arabian or Middle Eastern harems.   

The trading of slaves with other countries was encouraged in Africa, and was considered an important component of the African economy.  Slave trade across the Atlantic (the Trans-Atlantic slave trade) became a booming business for Europeans and Africans alike, by which African rulers sold their people to Europeans for goods such as iron, alcohol, tobacco and guns.  Trans-Atlantic trade led to the degrading use of “chattel” slaves, whereby the slaves were treated purely as property of the owner.  The slaves served as sailors, skilled craftsmen or farmers.  The journey across the Atlantic, known as the Middle Passage, led to the death of 10-20% of the African slaves.  But an even higher percentage lost their lives in the journey from their homes in Africa to the African coast, where they were to board the slave ships.  

The trading of slaves with other countries was encouraged in Africa, and was considered an important component of the African economy.  Slave trade across the Atlantic (the Trans-Atlantic slave trade) became a booming business for Europeans and Africans alike, by which African rulers sold their people to Europeans for goods such as iron, alcohol, tobacco and guns.  Trans-Atlantic trade led to the degrading use of “chattel” slaves, whereby the slaves were treated purely as property of the owner.  The slaves served as sailors, skilled craftsmen or farmers.  The journey across the Atlantic, known as the Middle Passage, led to the death of 10-20% of the African slaves.  But an even higher percentage lost their lives in the journey from their homes in Africa to the African coast, where they were to board the slave ships.  

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was one component in a system of routes known as the “Triangular Trade” between the Caribbean islands or South America, and New England, and the West Coast of Africa.  The three main items that were exchanged were sugar, rum and slaves.  European goods, mainly guns, were used to buy slaves from Africa.  The slaves were then shipped to the Americas.  Then, from America, sugar, rum and tobacco were brought back to Europe, completing the “triangle” of trade.  No specific “triangle” of trade has ever been identified and the term was not even used at the time to describe the trade routes; this concept may simply be the result of the imagination of modern historians.

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was one component in a system of routes known as the “Triangular Trade” between the Caribbean islands or South America, and New England, and the West Coast of Africa.  The three main items that were exchanged were sugar, rum and slaves.  European goods, mainly guns, were used to buy slaves from Africa.  The slaves were then shipped to the Americas.  Then, from America, sugar, rum and tobacco were brought back to Europe, completing the “triangle” of trade.  No specific “triangle” of trade has ever been identified and the term was not even used at the time to describe the trade routes; this concept may result from the imagination of modern historians.

The end of slavery in Europe did not come until the beginning of the 1800s, when Christian reformers such as William Wilberforce and John Wesley began speaking out against the evils of the system. Although the United States banned the slave trade in the early 1800s, slavery in the United States was not abolished until decades later in 1865 when the 13th Amendment was passed, and in South America it was finally ended in Brazil in 1888.

'''The end of slavery in Europe did not come until the beginning of the 1800s, when Christian reformers such as William Wilberforce and John Wesley began speaking out against the evils of the system'''. Although the United States banned the slave trade in the early 1800s, slavery in the United States was not abolished until decades later in 1865 when the 13th Amendment was passed, and in South America it was finally ended in Brazil in 1888.

===China’s Role in the Age of Exploration===

===China’s Role in the Age of Exploration===

The Scotsman David Hume (1711-1776) was a philosopher and historian who promoted materialism and naturalism rather than spirituality.  He was a “skeptic” towards religion, and he penned “A Treatise on Human Nature.”  He quipped, “You can tell what is inside a person’s soul by what comes out if it.”  Hume is considered the greatest philosopher to write in English, but that is only because there were so few good English philosophers.  Hume has been criticized for his atheistic approach and his chief claim to fame is that Charles Darwin declared Hume to have been his central influence, as did “Darwin’s bulldog,” Thomas Henry Huxley.  Hume believed in relativism rather than absolute truth, and that not even what God creates has absolute beauty: “Beauty in things exists merely in the mind which contemplates them,” Hume declared.<ref>David Hume’s ''Essays, Moral and Political'' (1742).</ref>

The Scotsman David Hume (1711-1776) was a philosopher and historian who promoted materialism and naturalism rather than spirituality.  He was a “skeptic” towards religion, and he penned “A Treatise on Human Nature.”  He quipped, “You can tell what is inside a person’s soul by what comes out if it.”  Hume is considered the greatest philosopher to write in English, but that is only because there were so few good English philosophers.  Hume has been criticized for his atheistic approach and his chief claim to fame is that Charles Darwin declared Hume to have been his central influence, as did “Darwin’s bulldog,” Thomas Henry Huxley.  Hume believed in relativism rather than absolute truth, and that not even what God creates has absolute beauty: “Beauty in things exists merely in the mind which contemplates them,” Hume declared.<ref>David Hume’s ''Essays, Moral and Political'' (1742).</ref>

The German Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the most famous philosophers ever.  In his “A Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant criticizes pure reason as a guide to life.  Kant may not have been a Christian himself, but he considered Christian values to be the best values in the world.  Kant also established a systematic basis for critical philosophy and suggested a material origin for the solar system.  Kant’s own suggestion for a moral daily life was this:  don’t do something which, if everyone did it, then the outcome would be bad.  Expressed another way, an act is moral only if it works as a rule for everyone.  For example, littering would be wrong because if everyone did it, then there would be an ugly mess.  Kant is taught in all college philosophy departments to this day, but not because he praised Christianity!

The German Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the most famous philosophers ever.  In his “A Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant criticizes pure reason as a guide to life.  Kant may not have been a Christian himself, but he considered Christian values to be the best values in the world.  Kant also established a systematic basis for critical philosophy and suggested a material origin for the solar system.  Kant’s own suggestion for a moral daily life was this:  don’t do something which, if everyone did it, then the outcome would be bad.  Expressed another way, an '''act is moral only if it works as a rule for everyone'''.  For example, littering would be wrong because if everyone did it, then there would be an ugly mess.  Kant is taught in all college philosophy departments to this day.

Finally, let’s recognize American contributions during the Enlightenment.  The greatest works about government were created by the Founding Fathers.  These works include the Declaration of Independence (1776) with its statement of inalienable rights and a right to break the social contract with a ruler when he (the king) violates natural rights.  The United States Constitution (1787) gave the world a masterful design for government.  The Federalist Papers (1788), and particularly articles by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison (most notably No. 10), were also significant.

Finally, let’s recognize American contributions during the Enlightenment.  The greatest works about government were created by the Founding Fathers.  These works include the Declaration of Independence (1776) with its statement of inalienable rights and a right to break the social contract with a ruler when he (the king) violates natural rights.  The United States Constitution (1787) gave the world a masterful design for government.  The Federalist Papers (1788), and particularly articles by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison (most notably No. 10), were also significant.

A related economic theory known as “mercantilism” also became popular.  Mercantilism was a policy for a nation (such as Britain) to increase its own national wealth based on trade with other nations and territories.  Under mercantilism, a nation should accumulate gold by exporting more goods than it imported, and by using colonies (such as the English colonies in America) to ship raw materials to the mother country that could be manufactured and exported to other peoples.  Another key component of mercantilism was establishing foreign trading monopolies that would have unfair advantages over competitors in other countries.  One such British monopoly was the East Indian Tea Company, and its unfair business advantage caused the colonists in Boston to revolt in the form of the Boston Tea Party.

A related economic theory known as “mercantilism” also became popular.  Mercantilism was a policy for a nation (such as Britain) to increase its own national wealth based on trade with other nations and territories.  Under mercantilism, a nation should accumulate gold by exporting more goods than it imported, and by using colonies (such as the English colonies in America) to ship raw materials to the mother country that could be manufactured and exported to other peoples.  Another key component of mercantilism was establishing foreign trading monopolies that would have unfair advantages over competitors in other countries.  One such British monopoly was the East Indian Tea Company, and its unfair business advantage caused the colonists in Boston to revolt in the form of the Boston Tea Party.

While Adam Smith’s “invisible hand” was positive in almost every way, “mercantilism” did have a dark side of exploitation of colonies for the benefit of the mother country.   

While Adam Smith’s “invisible hand” was positive in almost every way, “mercantilism” did have a dark side: exploitation of colonies for the benefit of the mother country.   

Adam Smith did not invent capitalism, but gave it a powerful intellectual justification.  In 1607 -- over 150 years before Adam Smith -- capitalism had already played a prominent role in the first settlement of North America at Jamestown, which was funded by a joint-stock company (a privately owned company having a structure similar to the corporations of today).  Joint-stock companies or corporations were (and are) a form of capitalism; decisions are made privately by those acting on behalf of the owners, without any direct control by government.

Adam Smith did not invent capitalism, but gave it a powerful intellectual justification.  In 1607 -- over 150 years before Adam Smith -- capitalism had already played a prominent role in the first settlement of North America at Jamestown, which was funded by a joint-stock company (a privately owned company having a structure similar to the corporations of today).  Joint-stock companies or corporations were (and are) a form of capitalism; decisions are made privately by those acting on behalf of the owners, without any direct control by government.