Difference between revisions of "Latinos"

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'''Latinos''' are Mexicans and other [[Hispanics]] in the United States from 1846 to the present.  By 2005 the Latino population reached 41.3 million, of whom 64% were Mexican, 10% Puerto Rican, 3% Cuban, 3% Dominican, 3% Salvadoran, and the remaining 17% from smaller groups.<ref> See Census Bureau press release, July 16, 2007  at [http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/010327.html]</ref>  About 12 million undocumented ("illegal") immigrants live in the U.S., a number that has grown since the [[9-11 attacks]] of 2001.  The undocumented--and indeed the legal immigrants-- have become targets of verbal and political attack.
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#REDIRECT [[Latino]]
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Culturally they are mostly conservative Catholics, with a strong evangelical element. They are known for very strong family ties, and high birth rates. They cluster at the bottom of the socio-economic scale, with low levels of education and high dropout rates from schools, and mostly unskilled or semi-skilled jobs. Their crime rate is about the national average.  They have been politically rather inactive (except in New Mexico and Puerto Rico).  The citizens have low turnout rates, but their rapid increase of numbers presages a major voting block. [[George W. Bush]], and to a lesser extent [[John McCain]] have made major efforts to attract them to the Republican Party, but Democrats outnumber Republicans by about 65:35.
 
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==19th century==
 
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When Mexico took over control from Spain in the early 1820s, the new government ignored and isolated the "norteños" (inhabitants of Mexico's northern provinces), except to break up the mission system in [[California]].  The systematic [[Navajo]] and [[Apache]] raids on [[New Mexico]] villages and ranches were ignored, as was the vulnerability of California, as the central government pulled back its soldiers to use them in recurrent civil wars and factional battles. When [[Republic of Texas|Texas]] seemed too independent, Mexico's President [[Santa Anna]] led an army to massacre the villagers and destroy the American settlements. After initial victories and massacres at The Alamo and Goliad, Santa Anna was decisively defeated by the Texans, who declared independence. The Tejanos in Texas joined the revolution and supported the new Republic of Texas; The Hispanics in New Mexico and California were localistic and did not identify with the regime in Mexico City.  The "norteños" played a minor role in the [[Mexican American War]] of 1846-48, and when offered the choice of repatriating to Mexico or remaining and becoming full citizens of the United States, the great majority remained. Only when large numbers of Americans arrived did they develop a sense of "lo mexicano," that is of "being Mexican," and that new identification had little to do with far-off Mexico. <ref> David G. Gutiérrez, "Migration, Emergent Ethnicity, and the "Third Space": The Shifting Politics of Nationalism in Greater Mexico" ''Journal of American History'' 1999 86(2): 481-517. ISSN: 0021-8723  [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(199909)86%3A2%3C481%3AMEEAT%22%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]</ref>  American entrepreneurs often cultivated alliances and partnerships with the Mexican propertied elites in the states of Texas and California, and the territories of New Mexico and Arizona. The Californios--who only numbered 10,000 in 1848, remained in California but were soon overwhelmed by the immigration of hundreds of thousands of newcomers to California, and largely became invisible to Anglos.  The Latino culture of the rest of the Southwest, especially New Mexico and southern Texas, called itself "Spanish" (rather than "Mexican") to distinguish themselves from "los norteamericanos". The Latinos emphasized their own religion, language, customs and kinship ties, and drew into enclaves, rural colonias and urban barrios, which norteamericanos seldom entered; intermarriage rates were low. 
 
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==20th century==
 
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[[Image:Texas-1905-Mexicans.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexican American field workers picking carrots in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas, about 1905]]
 
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After 1911 the ferocious civil wars in Mexico led 600,000 to 1 million refugees to flee north across the border, which was generally open. Well educated middle class families emigrated, as well as poor peons.
 
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In Texas a band of radicals based in Mexico issued the manifesto "[[Plan de San Diego]]" in 1915 in South Texas calling on Hispanics to reconquer the Southwest and kill all the Anglo men.  These radicals assassinated opponents and killed several dozen people in attacks on railroads and ranches before the Texas Rangers smashed the insurrection. The vast majority of Tejanos strongly repudiated the Plan and affirmed their American loyalty by founding the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). LULAC, headed by professionals, businessmen and modernizers,  became the central Tejano organization promoting civic pride and civil rights.<ref> Benjamin H.  Johnson, ''Revolution in Texas: how a forgotten rebellion and its bloody suppression turned Mexicans into Americans''. (2003).  </ref>
 
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Over 500,000 returned after 1930, but many stayed. The consulates of the Mexican government in major cities in the Southwest organized a network of "juntas patrioticas" (patriotic councils) and "comisiónes honoríficos" (honorary committees) to celebrate Mexican national holidays such as the [[Cinco de Mayo]]; the target audience was the Latino middle class.<ref> In Mexico itself, the emergence of a national identity for the average person was the work of the 20th century. After 1920 the national government promoted "true" mexicanismo by stirring up anti-American sentiment; promoting contemporary Mexican art, music, and literature; extolling and placing new emphasis on the value of the nation's indigenous peoples and the heritage of mestizaje.  Gutiérrez (1999)</ref> 
 
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In borderlands towns such as Brownsville, Corpus Christi, Laredo, San Antonio, El Paso, Tucson, Yuma, San Diego, and Los Angeles, local Latino leaders wanted to restrict the influx of immigrants, because the newcomers directly competed with resident Latinos for jobs and housing and because they reinforced negative stereotypes regarding a lazy and violent lifestyle. In 1929 the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) was formed on the premise that full acceptance of American social, educational and political values was the only way Latinos could reasonably expect to improve their political, economic, and social position in American society. Some upwardly mobile families joined [[Protestant]] churches, but most remained devout, conservative [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]]. From the early 1930s through the 1960s, LULAC's political agenda focused on citizenship training and naturalization of "foreign-born Mexicans," English-language training, active support of antidiscriminatory litigation and legislation (particularly regarding public schools), and strict control of further immigration from Mexico. LULAC promoted  the liberal rhetoric of "equality" and "rights" and the mutual obligations of [[Republicanism, U.S.|republican civic duty]]. However, voting levels were quite low, and especially in South Texas the Latino vote was controlled by local "bosses." There was little in the way of radical movements.
 
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==World War II==
 
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World War II was a watershed for all the Latino groups. Some 500,000 were drafted; even larger numbers of the women and older men worked in high paying munitions plants, ending the hardship years of the [[Great Depression|depression]] and inspiring demands for upward mobility and political rights. The League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and El Congreso de Pueblos de Hablan Española (the Spanish-Speaking Peoples' Congress), founded before the war, expanded their membership and more successfully demanded full integration for their middle class constituents. Labor unions opened their membership rolls and Luisa Moreno became the first Latina to hold a national union office, as vice-president of the United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers of America (UCAPAWA), and affiliate of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).
 
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===Post 1945===
 
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From 1945 to the early 1970s, large numbers of Latinos moved out of dead-end, low-wage work into higher-paying and higher-status skilled blue-collar occupations.<ref>  43% of the men were still unskilled workers or farm laborers in 1950; by 1960, the proportion had fallen to 33%.</ref> They and their children experienced steady gains in virtually all major socioeconomic indicators, including income, occupational status, English-language proficiency, years of education, and geographic mobility.  The opportunities were in the cities; there was little upward mobility for those who remained in the California farmland or in the chronically depressed lower [[Rio Grande]] Valley of Texas, and in the isolated rural hamlets of [[Colorado]] and [[New Mexico]].<ref>  Bean and Tienda, ''The Hispanic Population of the United States'' (1987), 17-22, 280-337. </ref>
 
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===Seasonal migration===
 
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A common pattern emerged after 1940 of men working summers in the U.S. and spending the winter season in the village back in Mexico. While this became illegal in 1965, the numbers involved kept growing. By 2007 there were 12 million or so undocumented workers in the U.S.; they had jobs, often using fake identity cards. They made money in the U.S. but returned to the villages to spend it, attend [[fiesta]]s, tend to family business, and participate in extended kinship rituals such as [[baptism]]s, weddings, and funerals. After the increased border security following the [[9-11 attacks]] in 2001, the [[seasonal migration|back-and-forth pattern]] became dangerous. People kept coming north, but they stayed in the U.S. and sent money home every month. Locked into the American economy year-round, millions of these undocumented workers moved out of season agricultural jobs into year-round jobs in restaurants, hotels, construction, landscaping and semiskilled factory work, such as meat packing. Most paid federal social security taxes into imaginary accounts (and thus were not eligible for benefits.) Few had high enough incomes to pay federal or state income taxes, but all paid local and state sales taxes on their purchases as well as local property taxes (via their rent payments to landlords).
 
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==Politics==
 
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Latinos engaged in national politics for the first time in 1960 when hundreds of "Viva Kennedy" clubs were created. As a result of military service in World War II the slowly improving civil rights atmosphere of the 1950s, Mexican Americans had tasted some limited successes in access to employment, education (particularly through the benefits of the G.I. Bill), and the election of a few government officials at the state and local levels. Moreover, with the establishment of new, aggressive Mexican American advocacy organizations in the Southwest between 1947 and 1959, community activists symbolically announced that Mexican Americans would henceforth be a political force with which to reckon. About 85% of the Mexican American vote went to Kennedy, slightly higher than other Catholic ethnics. The Latinos took credit for carrying California and Texas by razor-thin margins. President Kennedy, however, made some symbolic appointments but showed minimal interest in Mexican American issues.
 
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[[Image:Hispanic-US-1990.jpg|thumb|575px|Hispanic population 1990]]
 
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In 2000 and 2004 presidential elections, [[George W. Bush]] made a systematic effort to reach Latino voters, obtaining 40% of their vote. Most remained Democrats and in the 2008 presidential election, heavily favored [[Hillary Clinton]] over [[Barack Obama]] for the nomination.
 
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==Demography==
 
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California in 2006 had the largest Hispanic population of any state as of 2006 (13.1 million), followed by Texas (8.4 million) and Florida (3.6 million). Texas had the largest numerical increase between 2005 and 2006 (305,000), with California (283,000) and Florida (161,000) following. In New Mexico, Hispanics comprised the highest proportion of the total population (44%), with California and Texas (36% each) next in line.  The Hispanic population in 2006 was much younger, with a median age of 27.4 compared with the population as a whole at 36.4. About a third of the Hispanic population was younger than 18, compared with one-fourth of the total population.<ref> See Census report May 17, 2007 at [http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/010048.html] with details at [http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/cb07-70tbl2.xls]</ref>
 
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The rapid growth of the Hispanic population after 1972 began in the Southwest, but spread nationwide by 2000. The diffusion of Latinos across the country was dramatic by 2008, and became a major issue in the presidential election, with Republicans echoing nativist hostilities. In Georgia, for example, there were barely 60,000 Latinos in 1980, and 100,000 in 1990, less than 2%. By the 2000 Census the number had surged to 435,000, or 5%, with continuing rapid growth to 700,000 in 2006.<ref> Bullock and Hood (2006)</ref>
 
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In 1972 Hispanics comprised 6% of public school students, and more than tripled to 20% in 2005. However, despite fears that assimilation would be difficult, the proportion of students who spoke English with difficulty has been flat at 5%, according to graph 1.
 
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[[Image:Language.jpg|thumb|500px|Graph 1: Trends in students from foreign language homes and proportion speaking English with difficulty]]
 
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==Puerto Ricans==
 
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The U.S. acquired Puerto Rico from Spain in 1898, and engaged in a massive modernization program involving disease control, sanitation,  transportation, internal improvements, and medical care, along with corporate investment in sugar plantations. The island was overpopulated, so a systematic effort was made to assist migration. Over 5000 migrated to Hawaii (also acquired in 1898) to work in sugar plantations. By 1920 Puerto Ricans had full U.S. citizenship and had a presence in 45 states. New York City was the destination of 60%; children born anywhere on the mainland were dubbed "Nuyorican."<ref> Ruiz (2006)</ref>
 
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==Historiography==
 
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The study of Latino history raises a issues regarding the definition and boundaries of "Latino." Are Latinos a "group" and if so, what are its defining boundaries and characteristics? Is speaking Spanish a requirement to be Latino? Are indigenous peoples from Latin America part of the group? Do Latinos consider themselves a group? Do they cluster along lines of geographical origin? What is the relationship between old established settlements and new arrivals? How does the presence of 12 million undocumented ("illegal") arrivals affect the 25 million "legal" residents of the U.S. How has nativism and the hostility of Anglos and blacks shaped the group identity and opportunity? What impact is the rapid diffusion across the country having on local communities, schools, labor markets. Will the Latinos start voting in large numbers and become a political force? What is the impact of high dropout rates? Will majority-Latino communities change the national culture? Does Latino immigration follow or alter traditional patterns of assimilation?
 
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==Chicago==
 
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Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II.  Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref> Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975."  PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp.  DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M.  Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago."  PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp.  DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079 
 
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Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>
 
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==Further reading==
 
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See the more detailed guide at the Bibliography subpage
 
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* Aranda, José, Jr.  ''When We Arrive: A New Literary History of Mexican America.'' U. of Arizona Press, 2003. 256 pp. 
 
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*  Bean, Frank D.,  and Marta Tienda. ''The Hispanic Population of the United States'' (1987), statistical analysis of demography and social structure
 
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* Bogardus, Emory S. ''The Mexican in the United States'' (1934), sociological
 
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* De León, Arnoldo. ''Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History'', 2nd ed. (1999)
 
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*  De Leon, Arnoldo, and Richard Griswold Del Castillo. ''North to Aztlan: A History of Mexican Americans in the United States'' (2006)
 
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* Burt, Kenneth C. ''The Search for a Civic Voice: California Latino Politics,'' Regina Books, 2007. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1930053509/ref=sib_dp_bod_bc/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&p=S0CO#reader-link  Excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
 
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* Dolan, Jay P. and Gilberto M. Hinojosa; ''Mexican Americans and the Catholic Church, 1900-1965'' (1994)
 
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* García, María Cristina. ''Havana, USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959–1994'' (1996); [http://www.amazon.com/Havana-USA-Americans-Florida-1959-1994/dp/0520211170/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274078&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Gomez-Quiñones, Juan. ''Mexican American Labor, 1790-1990.'' (1994).
 
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* Gomez-Quinones, Juan. ''Chicano Politics: Reality and Promise, 1940-1990'' (1990)
 
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* Gómez-Quiñones, Juan. ''Roots of Chicano Politics, 1600-1940'' (1994)
 
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* Gonzales-Berry, Erlinda, David R. Maciel, editors, ''The Contested Homeland: A Chicano History of New Mexico'', 314 pages (2000), ISBN 0-8263-2199-2
 
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*  Grebler, Leo, Joan Moore, and Ralph Guzmán. ''The Mexican American People: The Nation's Second Largest Minority'' (1970), emphasis  on census data and statistics
 
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* Gutiérrez, David G.  ed. ''The Columbia History of Latinos in the United States Since 1960'' (2004) 512pp[http://www.amazon.com/Columbia-History-Latinos-United-States/dp/0231118090/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190386160&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Gutiérrez, David G.  "Migration, Emergent Ethnicity, and the "Third Space": The Shifting Politics of Nationalism in Greater Mexico" ''Journal of American History'' 1999 86(2): 481-517. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(199909)86%3A2%3C481%3AMEEAT%22%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]  covers 1800 to the 1980s
 
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* Gutiérrez, David G. ''Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity in the Southwest, 1910-1986'' 1995. [http://www.amazon.com/Walls-Mirrors-Americans-Immigrants-Ethnicity/dp/0520202198/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439733&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Gutiérrez; Ramón A. ''When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846'' (1991)
 
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* [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/index.html ''Handbook of Texas History'' Online]
 
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* Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutierrez, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Mexican-American-Rights-Movement/dp/0313304254/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190511642&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Ruiz, Vicki L. “Nuestra América: Latino History as United States History,” ''Journal of American History,'' 93 (Dec. 2006), 655–72.
 
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* Ruiz, Vicki L. ''From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America'' (1998)
 
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* Sãnchez Korrol, Virginia E. ''From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City.'' (1994) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2g5004p1/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free in California]; [http://www.amazon.com/Colonia-Community-History-American-Society/dp/0520079000/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274120&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Valle, Victor M. and Torres, Rodolfo D.  ''Latino Metropolis.'' 2000. 249 pp. on Los Angeles
 
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* Weber, David J. ''The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846: The American Southwest under Mexico'' (1982)
 
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* Whalen, Carmen Teresa, and Victor Vásquez-Hernández, eds. '' The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical Perspectives'' (2005),
 
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====notes====
 
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<references/>
 
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==Bibliography==
 
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==Surveys and historiography==
 
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*  Bean, Frank D.,  and Marta Tienda. ''The Hispanic Population of the United States'' (1987), statistical analysis of demography and social structure
 
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*  De Leon, Arnoldo, and Richard Griswold Del Castillo. ''North to Aztlan: A History of Mexican Americans in the United States'' (2006)
 
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* Garcia, Richard A. "Changing Chicano Historiography," ''Reviews in American History'' 34.4 (2006) 521-528 in [[Project Muse]]
 
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* Gomez-Quiñones, Juan. ''Mexican American Labor, 1790-1990.'' (1994).
 
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*  Gutiérrez, David G.  ed. ''The Columbia History of Latinos in the United States Since 1960'' (2004) 512pp[http://www.amazon.com/Columbia-History-Latinos-United-States/dp/0231118090/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190386160&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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*  Gutiérrez, David G.  "Migration, Emergent Ethnicity, and the "Third Space": The Shifting Politics of Nationalism in Greater Mexico" ''Journal of American History'' 1999 86(2): 481-517. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(199909)86%3A2%3C481%3AMEEAT%22%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V in JSTOR]  covers 1800 to the 1980s
 
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* Rochín, Refugio I., and Denis N. Valdés, eds. ''Title: Voices of a New Chicana/o History.'' (2000). 307 pp. 
 
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* Ruiz, Vicki L. “Nuestra América: Latino History as United States History,” ''Journal of American History,'' 93 (Dec. 2006), 655–72.
 
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* Ruiz, Vicki L. ''From Out of the Shadows: Mexican Women in Twentieth-Century America'' (1998)
 
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==Pre 1965==
 
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* Bogardus, Emory S. ''The Mexican in the United States'' (1934), sociological
 
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* Gamio, Manuel. ''The Life Story of the Mexican Immigrant'' (1931)
 
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* Gamio, Manuel. ''Mexican Immigration to the United States'' (1939)
 
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* García, Mario T. ''Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology and Identity, 1930–1960'' (1989)
 
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* García, Mario T. ''Desert Immigrants. The Mexicans of El Paso, 1880-1920'' (1982) 348 pp; [http://search.live.com/results.aspx?q=&mkt=en-us&scope=books&FORM=LIVSOP#q=%20Gamio%2C%20Manuel&filter=all&start=1&t=ivCkjgDxC9P4PBRhjHBcHQ&sq=%20Gamio%2C%20Manuel excerpt and text search]
 
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* Gomez-Quinones, Juan. ''Roots of Chicano Politics, 1600-1940'' (1994)
 
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*  Grebler, Leo, Joan Moore, and Ralph Guzmán. ''The Mexican American People: The Nation's Second Largest Minority'' (1970), emphasis  on census data and statistics
 
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* Rivas-Rodríguez, Maggie ed. ''Mexican Americans and World War II'' (2005)
 
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*  Sanchez, George J. ''Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/Becoming-Mexican-American-Ethnicity-1900-1945/dp/0195096487/ref=sr_1_9?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196813292&sr=8-9 excerpt and text search]
 
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==Culture and politics, post 1965==
 
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* Aranda, José, Jr.  ''When We Arrive: A New Literary History of Mexican America.'' U. of Arizona Press, 2003. 256 pp. 
 
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* Arreola, Daniel D., ed.  ''Hispanic Spaces, Latino Places: Community and Cultural Diversity in Contemporary America.'' 2004. 334 pp. 
 
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* Badillo, David A.  ''Latinos and the New Immigrant Church.'' 2006. 275 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/Latinos-Immigrant-Church-David-Badillo/dp/0801883873/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439630&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Berg, Charles Ramírez.  ''Latino Images in Film: Stereotypes, Subversion, and Resistance.'' 2002. 314 pp. 
 
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* Branton, Regina. "Latino Attitudes toward Various Areas of Public Policy: The Importance of Acculturation,"  ''Political Research Quarterly'', Vol. 60, No. 2, 293-303 (2007) [http://prq.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/60/2/293 Abstract]
 
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* Burt, Kenneth C. ''The Search for a Civic Voice: California Latino Politics,'' Regina Books, 2007. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1930053509/ref=sib_dp_bod_bc/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&p=S0CO#reader-link  Excerpts and online search from Amazon.com]
 
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*  DeGenova, Nicholas and Ramos-Zayas, Ana Y.  ''Latino Crossings: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and the Politics of Race and Citizenship.'' 2003. 257 pp. 
 
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* Dolan, Jay P. and Gilberto M. Hinojosa; ''Mexican Americans and the Catholic Church, 1900-1965'' (1994)
 
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* Fregoso, Rosa Linda. ''The Bronze Screen: Chicana and Chicano Film Culture.'' (1993) [http://www.amazon.com/Bronze-Screen-Chicana-Chicano-Culture/dp/0816621365/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439770&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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*  Garcia, Ignacio M.  ''Viva Kennedy: Mexican Americans in Search of Camelot,'' Texas A&M University Press, 2000. 227pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0890969175/ref=sib_books_pg/002-3913059-9393623?ie=UTF8&keywords=Viva%20Kennedy&p=S00W&checkSum=%252FgJCGbhD9ZhkdM7tbdQ24Nkv6GwGpcQXxELnjjwNHTI%253DExcerpts Excerpts and online search from Amazon.com].
 
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* García, Mario T. ''Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology and Identity, 1930–1960'' (1989)
 
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* García, María Cristina. ''Seeking Refuge: Central American Migration to Mexico, The United States, and Canada.'' (2006) 290pp
 
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* Gomez-Quinones, Juan. ''Chicano Politics: Reality and Promise, 1940-1990'' (1990)
 
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* Gutiérrez, David G. ''Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity in the Southwest, 1910-1986'' 1995. [http://www.amazon.com/Walls-Mirrors-Americans-Immigrants-Ethnicity/dp/0520202198/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439733&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Hammerback, John C., Richard J. Jensen, and Jose Angel Gutierrez. ''A War of Words: Chicano Protest in the 1960s and 1970s'' 1985. 
 
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* Kenski, Kate and Tisinger, Russell. "Hispanic Voters in the 2000 and 2004 Presidential General Elections." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 2006 36(2): 189-202. Issn: 0360-4918
 
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* Martinez, Juan Francisco. ''Sea La Luz: The Making of Mexican Protestantism in the American Southwest, 1829-1900'' (2006)
 
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* Matovina, Timothy.  ''Guadalupe and Her Faithful: Latino Catholics in San Antonio, from Colonial Origins to the Present.'' 2005. 232 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/Guadalupe-Her-Faithful-Catholics-Religions/dp/080188229X/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439807&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Meier, Matt S., and Margo Gutierrez, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Mexican-American-Rights-Movement/dp/0313304254/ref=sr_1_2/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190511642&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Nuno, S. A. "Latino Mobilization and Vote Choice in the 2000 Presidential Election" ''American Politics Research,'' (2007); 35(2): 273 - 293. [http://apr.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/35/2/273 Abstract]
 
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* Saldívar-Hull, Sonia. ''Feminism on the Border: Chicana Gender Politics and Literature'' 2000. [http://www.amazon.com/Feminism-Border-Chicana-Politics-Literature/dp/0520207335/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190439846&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
−
* Wegner, Kyle David, “Children of Aztlán: Mexican American Popular Culture and the Post-Chicano Aesthetic” (PhD dissertation  State University of New York, Buffalo, 2006). Order No. DA3213898.
 
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==Regional and Local==
 
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===California===
 
−
* [http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/HHBindex.htm Hubert Howe Bancroft. ''The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft,'']
 
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** [http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/HHBindex.htm  vol 18-24, ''History of California'' to 1890]
 
−
* Bedolla, Lisa García.  ''Fluid Borders: Latino Power, Identity, and Politics in Los Angeles.'' 2005. 279 pp. 
 
−
* Burt, Kenneth C. ''The Search for a Civic Voice: California Latino Politics'' (2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Search-Civic-Voice-California-Politics/dp/1930053509/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198650140&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]
 
−
* Camarillo, Albert. ''Chicanos in a Changing Society: From Mexican Pueblos to American Barrios in Santa Barbara and Southern California, 1848–1930'' (1979)
 
−
* Camarillo, Albert M., “Cities of Color: The New Racial Frontier in California’s Minority-Majority Cities,” ''Pacific Historical Review,'' 76 (Feb. 2007), 1–28; looks at cities of Compton, East Palo Alto, and Seaside
 
−
* Daniel, Cletus E. ''Bitter Harvest: A History of California Farmworkers, 1870-1941'' 1981.
 
−
* García, Matt. ''A World of Its Own: Race, Labor, and Citrus in the Making of Greater Los Angeles, 1900-1970'' (2001),
 
−
* Hayes-Bautista, David E.  ''La Nueva California: Latinos in the Golden State.'' U. of California Press, 2004. 263 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Nueva-California-Latinos-Golden-State/dp/0520241460/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190230154&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
−
* Hughes, Charles. "The Decline of the Californios: The Case of San Diego, 1846-1856" ''The Journal of San Diego History'' Summer 1975, Volume 21, Number 3 online at [http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/75summer/decline.htm]
 
−
* McWilliams, Carey. ''North from Mexico''. (1949), farm workers in California
 
−
* Pitt, Leonard. ''The Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californians, 1846-1890'' (ISBN 0-520-01637-8)
 
−
* Sánchez; George J. ''Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945'' (1993) [http://www.amazon.com/Becoming-Mexican-American-Ethnicity-1900-1945/dp/0195096487/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190472154&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Valle, Victor M. and Torres, Rodolfo D.  ''Latino Metropolis.'' 2000. 249 pp. on Los Angeles
 
−
 
 
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===Texas and Southwest===
 
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* Alonzo, Armando C. ''Tejano Legacy: Rancheros and Settlers in South Texas, 1734-1900'' (1998)
 
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* [http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/HHBindex.htm Hubert Howe Bancroft. ''The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft,'']
 
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** [http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/15/album1.html v 15: ''History of the North Mexican States and Texas, Volume 1: 1531 - 1800'']
 
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** [http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/16/album1.html v 16 ''History of the North Mexican States and Texas, Volume 2: 1801 - 1889'']
 
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** [http://www.1st-hand-history.org/Hhb/17/album1.html  Vol. 17 ''History of Arizona and New Mexico 1530-1888)'' (1889)]
 
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* Blackwelder, Julia Kirk. ''Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio'' 1984. [http://www.amazon.com/Women-Depression-Culture-1929-1939-Southwestern/dp/0890968640/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190511202&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Buitron Jr., Richard A. ''The Quest for Tejano Identity in San Antonio, Texas, 1913-2000'' (2004) [http://www.amazon.com/Tejano-Identity-Antonio-1913-2000-Communities/dp/0415949505/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1190511249&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
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* Chávez, John R. ''The Lost Land: The Chicano Image of the Southwest'' (Albuquerque, 1984)
 
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* Chávez-García, Miroslava. ''Negotiating Conquest: Gender and Power in California, 1770s to 1880s'' (2004).
 
−
* De León, Arnoldo. ''They Called Them Greasers: Anglo Attitudes toward Mexicans in Texas, 1821–1900'' (Austin, 1983)
 
−
* De León, Arnoldo. ''Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History'', 2nd ed. (1999)
 
−
* Deutsch, Sarah ''No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on the Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880-1940'' 1987
 
−
* Dysart, Jane. "Mexican Women in San Antonio, 1830-1860: The Assimilation Process" ''Western Historical Quarterly'' 7 (October 1976): 365-375. [http://www.jstor.org/pss/968057 in JSTOR]
 
−
* Echeverría, Darius V., “Aztlán Arizona: Abuses, Awareness, Animosity, and Activism amid Mexican-Americans, 1968–1978” PhD dissertation (Temple University, 2006). Order No. DA3211867.
 
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* Fregoso; Rosa Linda. ''Mexicana Encounters: The Making of Social Identities on the Borderlands'' (2003)
 
−
* García, Richard A. ''Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-1941'' 1991
 
−
* Getz; Lynne Marie. ''Schools of Their Own: The Education of Hispanos in New Mexico, 1850-1940'' (1997)
 
−
* Gómez-Quiñones, Juan. ''Roots of Chicano Politics, 1600-1940'' (1994)
 
−
* Gonzales-Berry, Erlinda, David R. Maciel, editors, ''The Contested Homeland: A Chicano History of New Mexico'', 314 pages (2000), ISBN 0-8263-2199-2
 
−
* González; Nancie L. ''The Spanish-Americans of New Mexico: A Heritage of Pride'' (1969)
 
−
* Guglielmo, Thomas A. "Fighting for Caucasian Rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the Transnational Struggle for Civil Rights in World War II Texas," ''Journal of American History,'' 92 (March 2006) [http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/92.4/guglielmo.html in History Cooperative]
 
−
* Gutiérrez; Ramón A. ''When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846'' (1991)
 
−
* [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/index.html ''Handbook of Texas History'' Online]
 
−
* Márquez, Benjamin. ''LULAC: The Evolution of a Mexican American Political Organization'' (1993)
 
−
* Matovina, Timothy M. ''Tejano Religion and Ethnicity, San Antonio, 1821-1860'' (1995)
 
−
* Montejano, David. ''Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986'' (1987)
 
−
* Muñoz, Laura K., “Desert Dreams: Mexican American Education in Arizona, 1870–1930” (PhD dissertation Arizona State University, 2006). Order No. DA3210182.
 
−
* Quintanilla, Linda J., “Chicana Activists of Austin and Houston, Texas: A Historical Analysis” (University of Houston, 2005). Order No. DA3195964.
 
−
* Sánchez; George I. ''Forgotten People: A Study of New Mexicans'' (1940; reprint 1996) on New Mexico
 
−
* Taylor, Paul S. ''Mexican Labor in the United States''. 2 vols. 1930-1932, on Texas
 
−
* Stewart, Kenneth L., and Arnoldo De León. ''Not Room Enough: Mexicans, Anglos, and Socioeconomic Change in Texas, 1850-1900'' (1993)
 
−
* de la Teja, Jesús F. ''San Antonio de Béxar: A Community on New Spain's Northern Frontier'' (1995).
 
−
* Tijerina, Andrés. ''Tejanos and Texas under the Mexican Flag, 1821-1836'' (1994),
 
−
* Tijerina, Andrés. ''Tejano Empire: Life on the South Texas Ranchos'' (1998).
 
−
* Timmons, W. H. ''El Paso: A Borderlands History'' (1990).
 
−
* Trevino, Roberto R. ''The Church in the Barrio: Mexican American Ethno-Catholicism in Houston.'' (2006). 308pp.
 
−
* Weber, David J. ''The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846: The American Southwest under Mexico'' (1982)
 
−
** Garcia, Richard A. "Changing Chicano Historiography," ''Reviews in American History'' 34.4 (2006) 521-528 in [[Project Muse]]
 
−
 
 
−
===Other regions===
 
−
* Bullock, Charles S., III and Hood, M. V., III. "A Mile-wide Gap: the Evolution of Hispanic Political Emergence in the Deep South." ''Social Science Quarterly'' 2006 87(special Issue): 1117-1135. Issn: 0038-4941 Fulltext: [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/action/showFullText?submitFullText=Full+Text+HTML&doi=10.1111%2Fj.1540-6237.2006.00419.x in [[Blackwell Synergy]]]
 
−
* García, María Cristina. ''Havana, USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959–1994'' (1996); [http://www.amazon.com/Havana-USA-Americans-Florida-1959-1994/dp/0520211170/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274078&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
−
* Korrol, Virginia Sánchez. ''From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City, 1917–1948'' (1994)
 
−
* Millard, Ann V. and Chapa, Jorge.  ''Apple Pie and Enchiladas: Latino Newcomers in the Rural Midwest.'' 2004. 276 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Apple-Pie-Enchiladas-Newcomers-Midwest/dp/0292705689/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274263&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 
−
* Murphy, Arthur D., Colleen Blanchard, and Jennifer A. Hill, eds.  ''Latino Workers in the Contemporary South.'' 2001. 224 pp. 
 
−
*  Padilla, Felix M.  ''Puerto Rican Chicago.'' (1987). 277 pp. 
 
−
* Sãnchez Korrol, Virginia E. ''From Colonia to Community: The History of Puerto Ricans in New York City.'' (1994) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft2g5004p1/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free in California]; [http://www.amazon.com/Colonia-Community-History-American-Society/dp/0520079000/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274120&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
 
−
* Vargas, Zaragosa. ''Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933'' (1993) [http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft8t1nb5q5/?&query=&brand=ucpress complete text online free in California]; [http://www.amazon.com/Proletarians-North-Industrial-1917-1933-American/dp/0520219627/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197274212&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
 
−
* Whalen, Carmen Teresa, and Victor Vásquez-Hernández, eds. '' The Puerto Rican Diaspora: Historical Perspectives'' (2005),
 
−
 
 
−
==Primary sources==
 
−
* Richard Ellis, ed. ''New Mexico Past and Present: A Historical Reader.'' 1971.
 
−
* David J. Weber; ''Foreigners in Their Native Land: Historical Roots of the Mexican Americans'' (1973), primary sources to 1912
 

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