Changes

==Growth of Nation-States and Monarchs==

==Growth of Nation-States and Monarchs==

The development of European nation-states continued throughout the Renaissance and Age of Exploration.  In the 1400s and 1500s, the most powerful nation-states were England, France and Spain.  The Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of parts of Italy and Germany, was a powerful but declining force.  Enemies that weakened the Holy Roman Empire included the Ottomans and French, who resisted its expansion.  The Reformation contributed to the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire, as did the fact that the cultures of Germany and Italy were too different to remain easily within the same empire.

The development of European nation-states continued throughout the Renaissance and Age of Exploration.  In the 1400s and 1500s, the most powerful nation-states were England, France and Spain.  The Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of parts of Italy and Germany, was a powerful but declining force.  Enemies that weakened the Holy Roman Empire included the Ottoman Muslims and the French, who resisted an expansion by the Holy Roman Empire.  The Reformation contributed to the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire, as did the fact that the cultures of Germany and Italy were too different to remain easily within the same empire.

The governments of the European nation-states grew in power by expanding their central authority.  They increased bureaucracy, the size of their armies and the amounts of their taxation.  The rise of absolutist rulers contributed to the centralization of France, Spain, Austria, Russia and Prussia.  The nature of an absolute monarch was expressed well in this famous quote attributed to Louis XIV (1527-1598), “L’etat c’est moi!” (I am the state).  Absolute monarchs controlled all aspects of government and society including the church, the bureaucracy and the military.  Absolute monarchs claimed “divine right” to rule, stating that they had been appointed by God Himself and were therefore responsible to God alone.  They enjoyed “sovereign immunity” under the view that “the king can do no wrong,” a principle that continues to exist in English and American law today (unless government “waives” its immunity with a law granting limited rights to sue it).

The governments of the European nation-states grew in power by expanding their central authority.  They increased bureaucracy, the size of their armies and the amounts of their taxation.  The rise of absolutist rulers contributed to the centralization of France, Spain, Austria, Russia and Prussia.  The nature of an absolute monarch was expressed well in this famous quote attributed to Louis XIV (1527-1598), “L’etat c’est moi!” (“I am the state”).  Absolute monarchs controlled all aspects of government and society including the church, the bureaucracy and the military.  Absolute monarchs claimed “divine right” to rule, stating that they had been appointed by God Himself and were therefore responsible to God alone.  They enjoyed “sovereign immunity” under the view that “the king can do no wrong,” a principle that continues to exist in English and American law today (unless government “waives” its immunity with a law granting limited rights to sue it).

Religious conflict in England between Catholics and Anglicans caused absolutism to fail there.  The “Glorious Revolution” (so named by supporters of the Church of England) brought down the Catholic King James II and the idea of divine right along with him, placing William and Mary on the throne in 1688.  In France, however, absolutism triumphed until the French Revolution, especially with the reign of Louis XIV, the leading absolute monarch in Europe.  The French court at Versailles during the reign of Louis XIV, who called himself the “Sun King,” was considered rich in culture and an example to other societies.  Truth be told, it was also extravagant and immoral.

Religious conflict in England between Catholics and Anglicans caused absolutism to fail there.  The “Glorious Revolution” (so named by supporters of the Church of England) brought down the Catholic King James II and the idea of divine right along with him, placing William and Mary on the throne in 1688.  In France, however, absolutism triumphed until the French Revolution, especially with the reign of Louis XIV, the leading absolute monarch in Europe.  The French court at Versailles during the reign of Louis XIV, who called himself the “Sun King,” was considered rich in culture and an example to other societies.  Truth be told, it was also extravagant and immoral.

Meanwhile, artistic pursuits flourished during this period in Spain.  El Greco (1541-1614), a painter, architect and sculptor best known for his paintings of saints and martyrs. as well as a stunning drawn image of a storm over a Spanish town (“A View of Toledo”).  Diego Velázquez painted portraits of the royal family and scenes from daily life at court.  In 1605 Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, probably the most influential piece of Spanish literature, and Lope de Vega wrote an estimated 2,000 plays.

Meanwhile, artistic pursuits flourished during this period in Spain.  El Greco (1541-1614), a painter, architect and sculptor best known for his paintings of saints and martyrs. as well as a stunning drawn image of a storm over a Spanish town (“A View of Toledo”).  Diego Velázquez painted portraits of the royal family and scenes from daily life at court.  In 1605 Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, probably the most influential piece of Spanish literature, and Lope de Vega wrote an estimated 2,000 plays.

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1547 to 1584.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.  Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, in which Frederick won the territory of Silesia.   

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1547 to 1584.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.  Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, during which Frederick won the territory of Silesia.   

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.