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| − | Flavor Science and Production
| + | {{Essay By|HelpJazz}} |
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| − | Flavor is a fundamental property of every food or drink that we consume every day of our lives. Flavor is found naturally in all food, yet there is a $12.9 billion worldwide industry dedicated to producing synthetic and natural flavor extracts and integrating them into food and drink to increase their taste and appeal (GCCC, 2006). Flavors (specifically those from spices) have had amazing effects on human history; since the first records mentioning spices in 2000 B.C. flavors have caused wars, created wealthy empires and lead to the discovery of new worlds (Reineccius, 2006).
| + | The [[Conservapedia:Commandments|Conservapedia Commandments]] state that we must "Always cite and give credit to your sources", though it does not instruct on the use of good sources. The [[Conservapedia:Manual of Style#Citing Sources and Using Footnotes|Manual of Style]] similarly does not shed light on the subject. This essay attempts to define a good set of guidelines for the use of appropriate citation material on Conservapedia. |
| − | Despite flavor’s importance, surprising details are yet unknown. It has been known for at least 100 years that taste buds on the tongue are responsible for transmitting flavor information gathered from food to the brain, but the molecular-level interactions that take place are just now being discovered by science. With the exception of sour and bitter tastes (which probably serve as a repellant mechanism) and those flavor compounds which are intermediate products, it is largely unknown, evolutionarily speaking, why flavors exist at all, and why they are produced in nature (Reineccius).
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| − | In this paper I will describe the basic form and function of flavors (as far as it is known) in order to give the reader a background of the flavor science industry. I will then discuss the production of flavors on an industrial scale, and give a profile of one of the major players in the flavor industry. Lastly, I will describe some current scientific research which uses flavor science principals to solve a scientific question.
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| − | Flavor Basics
| + | ==What Types of Sources are Currently Being Used?== |
| − | School children learn that the tongue can detect four flavors (sweet, sour, salty, bitter) and each flavor has dedicated taste buds in different regions of the tongue (the tip, the sides, the center and the back, respectively). This 4-distinct-flavor view of tastes was held as late as the 70’s (Pyke, 1970), but recent research suggests that not only is their a fifth flavor sensation (umami), but that the tongue has more overlap in flavor detection than previously thought. Tactile sensations such as heat and cool as well as aroma (from volatile flavor compounds) are now also considered part of the flavor properties of a food. Despite the seemingly limited combination of flavor properties, extremely large numbers of flavors are able to be sensed by the tongue.
| + | Since there are currently no clear guidelines, the reference sections have every type of source imaginable, ranging from the main stream media and journal articles all the way down to forums, talk page comments and even comments left on blog posts. |
| − | Sour flavors are generally produced by acids, and different acids produce different acidic flavors. Some familiar sour flavors are vinegar (acetic acid), sour milk (lactic acid), citrus fruit (citric acid), apples (malic acid) and wine (tartaric acid) (Reineccius). Salty flavors are most commonly associated with the mineral of the same name (sodium chloride), however most low molecular weight salts (ammonium chloride, potassium chloride, lithium chloride, sodium bromide, ammonium bromide, sodium iodide and lithium iodide) have a salty taste (Pyke). Less is known about sweet and bitter substances. There seems to be no relationship between organic functional groups and sweet flavor (as almost every class of compound has a member which tastes sweet), yet at the same time the chemistry is very specific. For example, saccharine, Figure 1, is 300 times sweeter than sugar (sucrose), however if the hydrogen bonded to the nitrogen is replaced with a methyl group, all flavor sensation disappears (Pyke). Likewise, bitter sensations are difficult to classify, though many plant-derived molecules which interact with the brain such as caffeine and nicotine (Reineccius), as well as large molecular weight ionic salts such as cesium chloride, rubidium bromide and potassium iodide (Pyke) produce bitter tastes.
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| − | Umami (Japanese for “delicious”, “savory” or “meaty”) is a newcomer to the basic flavor group. Umami is associated with L-glutamate and is found in meat broths, sea weed broth and aged cheese. It can also be used in solid form, usually monosodium glutamate, MSG (Reineccius, Pyke). Unlike the other four flavors, umami is not thought to have a flavor of its own, but rather it intensifies other flavors already present, hence the common use of MSG in many prepackaged food items.
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| − | Little is known about the mechanisms involved in tasting foods, but it is thought that sour and salty tastes utilize channels which allow inward proton transfer combined with H+-gated channels, while sweet, bitter and umami flavors utilize surface binding pathways to transmit flavor information. All five flavors depolarize the taste cell (which initially has a net negative internal charge) by causing the transfer of Ca2+ into the cell. This forms an electrical signal which is then sent to the brain and interpreted as flavor. When umami binds to a flavor cell, not only is there an influx of Ca2+ into the cell, but the cell also become more sensitive to the effects of other flavor compounds (Reineccius).
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| − | Flavor Production in Nature
| + | ==Why Do We Need a Guideline?== |
| − | Historically, most science in the field of flavor has been dedicated to determining what flavor is rather than how it is produced. In addition, the metabolic pathways involved in flavor production are often very complicated, which their determination difficult. Recently, however, due to the demand for man-made flavors (especially the production of flavors able to be labeled “natural flavors”) more research has been focused in this area of study.
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| − | While some compounds are produced as part of normal biological processes (sugars and acids, for example), volatile aroma components seem to have no biological function for the plant. Most aroma compounds are actually formed through break down of the cell; in plants the cells soften and degrade during ripening, and in vegetables the cell walls are ruptured by an outside force, such as a tooth or a knife. It is not until the cells break down that enzymatic reactions take place which rapidly form aromas (Reineccius).
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| − | Flavor in fruit is created by various linked metabolic pathways. Fatty acids, amino acids, carbohydrates and proteins are enzymatically converted to various flavor and aroma compounds associated with the fruit. A proposed mechanism for one such mechanism is shown in Figure 2. Through this mechanism, linoleic acid is metabolized into a CoA derivative (linoteyl-CoA), which is converted into various decadienoate esters which are associated with the flavor of a pear (Reineccius).
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| − | Figure 2: Mechanism for Flavor Formation in Pears (Reineccius)
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| − | Unlike fruits, vegetables to not develop flavor over a long period of time, but rather through rapid enzymatic reactions after cellular disruption. Similar to fruit, fatty acids, amino acids, carbohydrates and proteins are the substrates for the flavor reactions, however sulfur-containing volatiles are much more important.
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| − | Flavor Production in Industry
| + | ==Guidelines== |
| − | Flavors are manufactured and extracted for use in food and beverage by hundreds of different companies. They are primarily used in prepackaged food items, but they can also be sold to home consumers (in products such as imitation vanilla). Due to the difficulty (and sometimes impossibility) of patenting flavor compounds, many details of flavor manufacture are closely guarded secrets, however some general principles are known (Reineccius).
| + | Good |
| − | Flavor manufacture falls into two categories, natural and artificial. Legally speaking, natural flavors are those which are produced by nature or through an engineered biological reaction, while artificial flavors are created by man through chemical reactions. From a production standpoint, artificial flavors are more appealing, since natural flavors tend to be in low concentrations (especially fruit flavors), are susceptible to seasonal fluctuations, and have a high material cost (since natural flavors are generally derived from a whole spice or fruit) (Reineccius). Consumers generally prefer natural flavors over artificial, however. One reason for this is that natural flavors are not simply one or two compounds, which could be easily synthesized, but a large number of compounds in a characteristic distribution, called a flavor profile. For example, natural pineapple has at least 17 chemical compounds which make up its flavor profile. Any imitation pineapple will not taste exactly like real pineapple without this same profile (Pyke). Generally cost and quality dictate whether the expensive, but accurate natural flavors will be used in a product instead of the less costly, but also less accurate, artificial flavor.
| + | *Journal articles and scholarly works |
| − | The flavor industry also classifies flavors by phase (liquid, emulsion, paste and solid). The phase in which a flavoring product is produced is determined by the application (liquid phase flavors are produced for beverages, for example) and by the physical properties of the compounds involved. Emulsions are typically broken down further into beverage emulsions, which are used to add flavor or turbidity to beverages, and baker’s emulsions, which are viscous macroemulsions (Reineccius).
| + | *Mainstream media (break up into parts) |
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| + | *Primary sources (official websites) |
| − | One compound whose production methods are well known is vanilla flavoring. Vanilla is grown in very few places in the world (90% of the world’s vanilla is grown in Madagascar and Comoro and Reunion islands) (Reineccius). The principal flavor compound is vanillin (see Figure 3), but there are other important compounds, the composition of which varies depending on the region (see Figure 4). These composition differences are enough such that a difference in flavor can be detected when vanilla from different regions are tasted.
| + | *Non-partisan secondary sources |
| − | Natural vanilla flavor is created from the beans of vanilla plant. After a delicate growing and harvesting procedure the beans are treated with mild, moist heat in order to break down cell walls and promote enzymatic reactions. They are then sun, oven, and air dried for up to 6 months. During this curing process three types of glucosides are hydrolytically cleaved to produce phenols (one of which is vanillin, from glucovanillin) and glucose which give vanilla its characteristic flavor. After curing the beans crushed and mixed with sugar. They are then percolated in an ethanol/water mixture for several weeks to extract the oils from the beans. The solids are filtered or centrifuged out and the alcohol content is then adjusted to the 35% minimum required by law (Reineccius).
| + | *Nonsholarly nonfiction (gray area) |
| − | Since natural vanilla is very expensive, imitation vanilla is often used to mix with or completely replace natural vanilla. Imitation vanilla was produced from eugenol, which was itself produced by oil of clove, but now it is made from sulfite waste liquors from the paper industry (Reineccius).
| + | *Activist groups |
| | + | Bad |
| | + | *Partisan online news sites |
| | + | *Blogs |
| | + | Ugly |
| | + | *Forums or message boards |
| | + | *Any other CP page |
| | + | *Comments to blogs |
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| − | Industry Profile: Givaudan
| + | ==Exceptions and Rules of Thumb== |
| − | In 2006, Givaudan was the largest flavor and fragrance producer in the world (Leffingwell, 2007). It was formed in 1796 in Vernier, Switzerland and currently makes $2.4 billon a year in profits. It has 39 flavor creation centers and its United States headquarters is located in Cincinnati, Ohio (Givaudan, 2007). Givaudan produces natural and artificial flavors for use in beverages, dairy, and sweet goods, as well as producing savory flavors (such as those chicken or beef flavor). They particularly focus on all aspects of the manufacture of citrus flavor.
| + | ===When Does Bias Matter?=== |
| − | One of Givaudan’s areas of interest is in products which promote health and wellness. Their TasteSolutions program was created in order to research ways to make products which are healthier and more environmentally friendly. The program researches ways to reduce sugar intake through artificial sweeteners, how to replace sodium chloride with other salts to reduce sodium intake, and how to reduce fat intake by creating flavors in low fat foods which imitate those in full calorie versions. The program is also researching ways to be more environmentally friendly and energy efficient in the production of flavors (Givaudan).
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| − | Current Science
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| − | While the main focus of flavor science is in the production of good flavors, there is also a large amount of work being done in studying bad flavors (called “off-flavors”). One study performed by Vallod et al was performed to determine what causes an off-flavor in fish, specifically carp. While off-flavors can be present in many fish, carp are particularly susceptible to an earthy or musty flavor, which drastically lowers their economic viability. Vallod chose four fish farms in France and performed an analysis of the sediment and measured the temperature, nitrogen content and microbial concentration of the water. Trained sensory evaluators as well as chemical analysis were used to determine the presence, amount and character of any off-flavor. It was discovered that the presence of cyanobacteria, specifically Anabaena spiroides was responsible for the off-flavor. The algae produce geosmin, which was found in the fish and is likely the off-flavor detected.
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| | + | ---- |
| | + | '''''The Godfather''''' is novel by [[Mario Puzo]] written in 1969. In 1972 [[Francis Ford Coppola]] directed a movie of the same name based on the novel. |
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| | + | ==Plot== |
| | + | The story follows the actions of Vito Corleone, the [[Italian-American]] boss of a [[New York City]] crime syndicate, and those of his family. |
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| − | Conclusion
| + | Family meets with sollozo, sonny slips |
| − | Flavor, one of the most basic human senses, is a complicated and relatively unstudied subject. Even though man has sensed flavors for his entire existence it is not until recently that science has begun to look at flavor as a valid area of interest. The flavor industry is quickly growing and constantly innovating. Natural flavors are superior to artificial flavors in terms of taste, but as the technology improves artificial flavors may become close enough to the real thing to be able to compete with it.
| + | sollozo shoots vito to proposition sonny |
| | + | michael visits father, is hit by mccluskey |
| | + | Michael kills mccluskey and sollozo, hides in italy; war breaks out |
| | + | carlo beats connie to draw out sonny; sonny is killed, fredo heads west |
| | + | the Don arranges peace with the 5 families; michael is allowed home and marries kay |
| | + | michael arranges for the family to move to nevada |
| | + | vito dies of a heart attack, tessio arranges for a meeting with barzini (when?), meaning he is going to betray michael |
| | + | michael kills barzini and tattaglia, tessio and carlo |
| | + | kay discovers mike's deeds and converts to catholicism |
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| − | References
| + | ==Awards== |
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| − | Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce (GCCC), “Cincinnati USA: Chemistry Industry Leadership.” 2006. < http://www.gccc.com/pdf/ind_profile/ChemEng.pdf> Accessed November 11, 2007.
| + | ==Sequels== |
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| − | Leffingwell & Associates, “2002 - 2006 Flavor & Fragrance Industry Leaders.” 2007. <http://www.leffingwell.com/top_10.htm> Accessed November 11, 2007.
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| − | Givaudan. <http://www.givaudan.com> Accessed November 11, 2007.
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| − | Pyke, Magnus. Synthetic Food. Spottiswoode, Ballanyne & Co: 1970.
| + | The film It was directed by [[Francis Ford Coppola]] and based on the book of the same name by [[Mario Puzo]]. It won the [[Academy Award]] for Best Picture, and is considered to be one of the greatest American films of all time. The [[American Film Institute]] ranks ''The Godfather'' as the second-best movie of the last century, after ''[[Citizen Kane]]''. |
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| − | Reineccuis, Gary. Flavor Chemistry and Technology. Taylor & Francis: 2006.
| + | The film was followed by two sequels, ''[[The Godfather Part II]]'' (1974) (which also won Best Picture) and ''[[The Godfather Part III]]'' (1990) (which was nominated for Best Picture). |
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| − | Vallod, D. et al. “Analysis of the off-flavor risk in carp production in ponds in Dombes and Forenz (France),” Aquaculture International. 15.3-4 (June 2007).
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