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'''Cyaxares II''', is the alleged son and successor of the legendary [[Astyages]], King of the [[Medes]] in [[Ecbatana]] who reigned from 561 to 536 BC according to Barnes’ Notes,<ref>Barnes' Notes on the Bible, Daniel 9:1. [https://biblehub.com/commentaries/barnes/daniel/9.htm]</ref> but for whom a better ending date might be late 538 BC (see below).  The generally accepted narrative is that the throne passed straight from [[Astyages]] to [[Cyrus the Great]].

 

'''Cyaxares II''', is the alleged son and successor of the legendary [[Astyages]], King of the [[Medes]] in [[Ecbatana]] who reigned from 561 to 536 BC according to Barnes’ Notes,<ref>Barnes' Notes on the Bible, Daniel 9:1.[https://biblehub.com/commentaries/barnes/daniel/9.htm]</ref> but for whom a better ending date might be late 538 BC (see below).  The generally accepted narrative is that the throne passed straight from [[Astyages]] to [[Cyrus the Great]].

== Original Sources ==

== Original Sources ==

Meanwhile the strongest ''specific'' literary evidence for his existence lies within the pages [[Xenophon|Xenohon's]] crowning work, the ''[[Cyropaedia]]'', who as a Greek military commander served in [[Cyrus the Younger|Cyrus']] army.  This work was so highly prized by [[Alexander the Great]], that he made it his perpetual study<ref>Xenophon, 'Cyropaedia'', Introduction, Delphi Classics, 2013, Hastings, UK</ref>; by extension it was obviously also recommended to him by his mentor and tutor [[Aristotle]]<ref>[[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], History of Alexander, 1.9</ref>. Likewise did [[Julius Caesar]]<ref>Xenophon, 'Cyropaedia'', Introduction, Delphi Classics, 2013, Hastings, UK</ref>.  Meanwhile [[Scipio Africanus]] is reported to have carried it with him everywhere<ref>Xenophon, 'Cyropaedia'', Introduction, Delphi Classics, 2013, Hastings, UK</ref>.  This combined with a possible identity match with [[Josephus|Josephus']] [[Darius the Mede|Darius, King of Media]]<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'', 10.11.2.[https://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/ant-10.htm]</ref>, "the son of Astyages, [who] had another name among the Greeks"<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'', 10.11.4.[https://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/ant-10.htm]</ref> creates a good case.  Compoundingly, two of the rebels listed in [[Darius I|Darius I's]] [[Behistun (inscription)|Behistun Inscription]] claimed "to be of the family of Cyaxares": which has naturally created debate if these are references to [[Cyaxares I]] or to the possible [[Cyaxares II]].  Finally those who accept the [[Book of Daniel]] to be true, note that it was [[Darius the Mede]] who officially seized the kingdom<ref>Daniel 5:31</ref>, which happily correlates all three of these literary sources to their reasoning.

Meanwhile the strongest ''specific'' literary evidence for his existence lies within the pages [[Xenophon|Xenohon's]] crowning work, the ''[[Cyropaedia]]'', who as a Greek military commander served in [[Cyrus the Younger|Cyrus']] army.  This work was so highly prized by [[Alexander the Great]], that he made it his perpetual study<ref>Xenophon, 'Cyropaedia'', Introduction, Delphi Classics, 2013, Hastings, UK</ref>; by extension it was obviously also recommended to him by his mentor and tutor [[Aristotle]]<ref>[[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], History of Alexander, 1.9</ref>. Likewise did [[Julius Caesar]]<ref>Xenophon, 'Cyropaedia'', Introduction, Delphi Classics, 2013, Hastings, UK</ref>.  Meanwhile [[Scipio Africanus]] is reported to have carried it with him everywhere<ref>Xenophon, 'Cyropaedia'', Introduction, Delphi Classics, 2013, Hastings, UK</ref>.  This combined with a possible identity match with [[Josephus|Josephus']] [[Darius the Mede|Darius, King of Media]]<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'', 10.11.2.[https://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/ant-10.htm]</ref>, "the son of Astyages, [who] had another name among the Greeks"<ref>Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'', 10.11.4.[https://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/josephus/ant-10.htm]</ref> creates a good case.  Compoundingly, two of the rebels listed in [[Darius I|Darius I's]] [[Behistun (inscription)|Behistun Inscription]] claimed "to be of the family of Cyaxares": which has naturally created debate if these are references to [[Cyaxares I]] or to the possible [[Cyaxares II]].  Finally those who accept the [[Book of Daniel]] to be true, note that it was [[Darius the Mede]] who officially seized the kingdom<ref>Daniel 5:31</ref>, which happily correlates all three of these literary sources to their reasoning.

Alternitively, [[Cyaxares II]] does not appear in [[Ptolemy's Canon]]<ref>Livius, Ptolemy's ''Canon''. [https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/ptolemys-canon/]</ref> or the [[Uruk King List]]<ref>Livius, Uruk King List.[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/uruk-king-list/]</ref>.  But neither of these feature [[Belshazzar]] who became effective king of Babylon after his father [[Nabonidas]] capture now confirmed to us by the Nabonidus Cylinder (from Ur)<ref>Livius, ''Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur''.[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/nabonidus-cylinder-from-ur/]</ref><ref>Livius, ''ABC 7 (Nabonidus Chronicle)'', Column iii.16.[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/]</ref>.  Similarly [[Ptolemy's Canon|Ptolemy]] does not list [[Nerglissar|Nerglissar's]] son [[Labasi-Marduk]] while the [[Uruk King List|Uruk]] does.

Alternatively, [[Cyaxares II]] does not appear in [[Ptolemy's Canon]]<ref>Livius, Ptolemy's ''Canon''. [https://www.livius.org/articles/concept/ptolemys-canon/]</ref> or the [[Uruk King List]]<ref>Livius, Uruk King List.[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/uruk-king-list/]</ref>.  But neither of these feature [[Belshazzar]] who became effective king of Babylon after his father [[Nabonidas]] capture now confirmed to us by the Nabonidus Cylinder (from Ur)<ref>Livius, ''Nabonidus Cylinder from Ur''.[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/nabonidus-cylinder-from-ur/]</ref><ref>Livius, ''ABC 7 (Nabonidus Chronicle)'', Column iii.16.[https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/]</ref>.  Similarly [[Ptolemy's Canon|Ptolemy]] does not list [[Nerglissar|Nerglissar's]] son [[Labasi-Marduk]] while the [[Uruk King List|Uruk]] does.

Meanwhile [[Cyaxares II]] existence is further called into question when the [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] openly states that: 1. [[Cyrus|Cyrus the Great]] attacked [[Astyages]] and that the army betrayed [[Astyages]]<ref>Livius, ''ABC 7 (Nabonidus Chronicle)'', Column ii. [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/]</ref> thereby 2. denying [[Astyages]] throne passed to [[Cyaxares II]] at all.  This account is in harmony with Herodotus' narrative which may be derived from the [[Nabonidus Chronicle|Chronicle]] or another common source.

Meanwhile [[Cyaxares II]] existence is further called into question when the [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] openly states that: 1. [[Cyrus|Cyrus the Great]] attacked [[Astyages]] and that the army betrayed [[Astyages]]<ref>Livius, ''ABC 7 (Nabonidus Chronicle)'', Column ii. [https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/]</ref> thereby 2. denying [[Astyages]] throne passed to [[Cyaxares II]] at all.  This account is in harmony with Herodotus' narrative which may be derived from the [[Nabonidus Chronicle|Chronicle]] or another common source.

Since Cyaxares II does not appear in official records that were compiled after his death, and which official records were used by later sources such as Ptolemy’s ''Canon'' in setting forth the sequence of kings, there are no known direct sources that can be used to specify exactly the years of his reign (assuming that he really did reign as king of Media as Xenophon relates). There are, however, some sources from which estimates can be made of the time of his death. The first of these is the statement in the ''Cyropaedia'' (8.6.22) that, after the capture of Babylon, Cyrus shared his time between three capitals: Babylon, Susa the capital of Persia, and Ecbatana the capital of Media. ''Cyropaedia'' 8.7.1 says that his last trip to Persia was in the seventh year of his reign. Cyrus died in August of 530 BC<ref>Richard A. Parker and Waldo H. Dubberstein, ''Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C.—A. D. 75'' (Providence: Brown Univ. Press, 1956), 14).</ref>, implying that, in the source used by Xenophon, his full reign began in about 537 BC. He would only be reckoning Ecbatana, traditional capital of the Medians, as one of his capitals after the death of Cyaxares. This information from the ''Cyropaedia'' therefore suggests that in the period from 539 to late 538 or early 537 BC, Cyaxares was still alive and reigning.

Since Cyaxares II does not appear in official records that were compiled after his death, and which official records were used by later sources such as Ptolemy’s ''Canon'' in setting forth the sequence of kings, there are no known direct sources that can be used to specify exactly the years of his reign (assuming that he really did reign as king of Media as Xenophon relates). There are, however, some sources from which estimates can be made of the time of his death. The first of these is the statement in the ''Cyropaedia'' (8.6.22) that, after the capture of Babylon, Cyrus shared his time between three capitals: Babylon, Susa the capital of Persia, and Ecbatana the capital of Media. ''Cyropaedia'' 8.7.1 says that his last trip to Persia was in the seventh year of his reign. Cyrus died in August of 530 BC<ref>Richard A. Parker and Waldo H. Dubberstein, ''Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C.—A. D. 75'' (Providence: Brown Univ. Press, 1956), 14).</ref>, implying that, in the source used by Xenophon, his full reign began in about 537 BC. He would only be reckoning Ecbatana, traditional capital of the Medians, as one of his capitals after the death of Cyaxares. This information from the ''Cyropaedia'' therefore suggests that in the period from 539 to late 538 or early 537 BC, Cyaxares was still alive and reigning.

Another means of estimating the time that Cyaxares was still alive and ruling after the capture of Babylon comes from contract texts. William Shea did an extensive study of Babylonian contract texts which dated the contract to a year of Cyrus.<ref>William H. Shea, “An Unrecognized Vassal King of Babylon in the Early Achaemenid Period II,” ''Andrews University Seminary Studies'' 9 (1997): 99–128.</ref> He examined several texts that named the reigning king as Cyrus, the first of which was dated to the 23rd day of the seventh month (Tishri) of the “accession year” of Cyrus, that is the year in which he was recognized as king in Babylon. This agrees with the statement in the [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] that Cyrus defeated the army of Nabonidus in the seventh month, causing the Babylonians to revolt (possibly Persian propaganda) and Nabonidus to flee. Shea found three texts dated to this seventh month of Cyrus’s accession year. In all of them Cyrus was called “King of Lands” and also “King of Babylon.” This is followed by 29 contract texts dating from the eighth month of Cyrus’s accession year to the ninth month of his year one (Kislev, Nov/Dec 538 BC) the title “King of Lands” is retained, but the title “King of Babylon” is dropped for Cyrus, returning in contract texts dated to the tenth month, year one (December 538/January 537 BC). Shea surmised that the reason for the puzzling omission of “King of Babylon” as a titulary for Cyrus for 14 months was because someone else was honored with that title during this time, and he conjectured that that person was Gubaru, leader of the Gutians (Xenophon’s Gobryas), an identification that is not feasible, because, among other reasons, the Nabonidus Chronicle relates that Gubaru died only 25 days after the conquest of Babylon. If, however, Cyrus let it be known that the people should give Cyaxares the title “King of Babylon” in deference to his uncle (a deference that appears at critical places in the ''Cyropaedia''), then this information could be used to date the death of Cyaxares to the time when the title “King of Babylon” reverted back to Cyrus, i.e. to some time just before year one of Cyrus, month ten, day 16 (December 23, 538 BC), the earliest date after the 13-month hiatus in giving this title to Cyrus. This would place the death of Cyaxares just shortly before that time, i.e. probably sometime in December, 538, in good agreement with Xenophon’s statement that Cyrus made use of all three capitals, including Ecbatana, in the last seven years of his reign, 537 to 530 BC. This date for the death of Cyaxares is in general agreement with the book of Daniel, where the references to “Darius the Mede” in Daniel 5:31, 6:28, 9:1, 10:1, and 11:1 imply that his length of reign in Babylon was not long before he was superseded by Cyrus.  

Another means of estimating the time that Cyaxares was still alive and ruling after the capture of Babylon comes from contract texts. William Shea did an extensive study of Babylonian contract texts which dated the contract to a year of Cyrus.<ref>William H. Shea, “An Unrecognized Vassal King of Babylon in the Early Achaemenid Period II,” ''Andrews University Seminary Studies'' 9 (1997): 99–128.</ref> He examined several texts that named the reigning king as Cyrus, the first of which was dated to the 23rd day of the seventh month (Tishri) of the “accession year” of Cyrus, that is the year in which he was recognized as king in Babylon. This agrees with the statement in the [[Nabonidus Chronicle]] that Cyrus defeated the army of Nabonidus in the seventh month, causing the Babylonians to revolt (possibly Persian propaganda) and Nabonidus to flee. Shea found three texts dated to this seventh month of Cyrus’s accession year. In all of them Cyrus was called “King of Lands” and also “King of Babylon.” This is followed by 29 contract texts dating from the eighth month of Cyrus’s accession year to the ninth month of his year one (Kislev, Nov/Dec 538 BC) the title “King of Lands” is retained, but the title “King of Babylon” is dropped for Cyrus, returning in contract texts dated to the tenth month, year one (December 538/January 537 BC). Shea surmised that the reason for the puzzling omission of “King of Babylon” as a titulary for Cyrus for 14 months was because someone else was honored with that title during this time, and he conjectured that that person was Gubaru, leader of the Gutians (Xenophon’s Gobryas), an identification that is not feasible, because, among other reasons, the Nabonidus Chronicle relates that Gubaru died only 25 days after the conquest of Babylon. If, however, Cyrus let it be known that the people should give Cyaxares the title “King of Babylon” in deference to his uncle (a deference that appears at critical places in the ''Cyropaedia''), then this information could be used to date the death of Cyaxares to the time when the title “King of Babylon” reverted back to Cyrus, i.e. to some time just before year one of Cyrus, month ten, day 16 (December 23, 538 BC), the earliest date after the 13-month hiatus in giving this title to Cyrus. This would place the death of Cyaxares just shortly before that time, i.e. probably sometime in December, 538, in good agreement with Xenophon’s statement that Cyrus made use of all three capitals, including Ecbatana, in the last seven years of his reign, 537 to 530 BC. This date for the death of Cyaxares is in agreement with the book of Daniel, where the references to “Darius the Mede” in Daniel 5:31, 6:28, 9:1, 10:1, and 11:1 imply that his length of reign in Babylon was not long before he was superseded by Cyrus.  

==Similarities between Xenophon’s Cyaxares II and Daniel’s Darius the Mede==

==Similarities between Xenophon’s Cyaxares II and Daniel’s Darius the Mede==

* Both were kings of Media in the sixth century BC.

* Both were kings of Media in the sixth century BC.