Changes

In the United States there were some American citizens of Japanese descent, particularly in California.  After the attack on Pearl Harbor, fear and distrust about Japanese Americans arose.  Rumors of surprise Japanese attacks on the west coast of the United States became common, and some American officials feared spying by Japanese Americans.  The loyalty of American citizens of Japanese descent was doubted.

In the United States there were some American citizens of Japanese descent, particularly in California.  After the attack on Pearl Harbor, fear and distrust about Japanese Americans arose.  Rumors of surprise Japanese attacks on the west coast of the United States became common, and some American officials feared spying by Japanese Americans.  The loyalty of American citizens of Japanese descent was doubted.

President Roosevelt, with the support of California Governor Earl Warren (who was later appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in the 1950s), ordered that people of Japanese descent be forced to live in internment camps where they could be watched 24 hours a day.  These included American citizens who had been born in the United States (the “Nisei”).  Their property was confiscated also.  Many of the internment camps were located away from the coasts in unfamiliar territories, such as near Indian reservations.  Overall, 110,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly moved to internment camps during the war.

President Roosevelt, with the support of California Governor [[Earl Warren]] (who was later appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in the 1950s), ordered that people of Japanese descent be forced to live in internment camps where they could be watched 24 hours a day.  These included American citizens who had been born in the United States (the “Nisei”).  Their property was confiscated also.  Many of the internment camps were located away from the coasts in unfamiliar territories, such as near Indian reservations.  Overall, 110,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly moved to internment camps during the war.

This policy constituted racial discrimination and some of the victims sued to stop it.  But the U.S. Supreme Court upheld this racial discrimination in Korematsu v. United States (1944).  Three dissented from this decision, which is considered one of the Court’s most embarrassing rulings.  In 1948 Congress enacted the Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act to compensate some of the victims for losing their homes and businesses.  In 1980, Congress held hearings to review some of the personal hardships, and issued a report in 1983 condemning President Roosevelt’s removal order and the Supreme Court decision.

This policy constituted racial discrimination and some of the victims sued to stop it.  But the U.S. Supreme Court upheld this racial discrimination in ''Korematsu v. United States'' (1944).  Three dissented from this decision, which is considered one of the Court’s most embarrassing rulings.  In 1948 Congress enacted the Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act to compensate some of the victims for losing their homes and businesses.  In 1980, Congress held hearings to review some of the personal hardships, and issued a report in 1983 condemning President Roosevelt’s removal order and the Supreme Court decision.

Beginning the day before the attack on Pearl Harbor, American scientists were feverishly working on building an atomic bomb to help end the war.  The code name for this project was the “Manhattan Project.”  

Beginning the day before the attack on Pearl Harbor, American scientists were feverishly working on building an atomic bomb to help end the war.  The code name for this project was the “Manhattan Project.”  

Since 1900 scientists had known that the natural decay of radioactive elements produced large quantities of energy, much larger than the energy produced by chemical reactions.  In 1914, a science-fiction writer named H.G. Wells described futuristic “atomic bombs” in a novel.  In 1933, Hungarian-born physicist Leo Szilard had the idea that a nuclear chain reaction could make the rapid release of energy from the atom possible.  Japan and Germany had projects to build a bomb.

Since 1900 scientists had known that the natural decay of radioactive elements produced large quantities of energy, much larger than the energy produced by chemical reactions.  In 1914, a science-fiction writer named H.G. Wells described futuristic “atomic bombs” in a novel.  In 1933, Hungarian-born physicist Leo Szilard had the idea that a nuclear chain reaction could make the rapid release of energy from the atom possible.  Japan and Germany had projects to build a bomb too.

Szilard immigrated to the United States and was determined to persuade President Roosevelt to fund the building of an atomic bomb. Szilard felt that a letter to the President by Albert Einstein would help.  Einstein, a pacifist, was known better than most physicists. Einstein agreed to sign a letter written by Szilard, which was then taken to President Roosevelt in early August 1939.  The letter explained the feasibility and importance of developing an atomic bomb.  

Szilard immigrated to the United States and was determined to persuade President Roosevelt to fund the building of an atomic bomb. Szilard felt that a letter to the President by Albert Einstein would help.  Einstein, a pacifist, was known better than most physicists. Einstein agreed to sign a letter written by Szilard, which was then taken to President Roosevelt in early August 1939.  The letter explained the feasibility and importance of developing an atomic bomb.  

The scientists succeeded, and rushed a few prototype bombs to the military for potential use near the end of the war in 1945.  By then, Americans had won many victories against the Japanese in the Pacific, including capturing the island of Leyte in the Philippines in October 1944, and then defeating the Japanese at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.  The U.S. Marines defeated the Japanese at Iwo Jima, resulting in a famous picture of several Marines raising the American flag.  But the American capture of Okinawa in June 1945 proved to be one of the bloodiest land battles of the war with Japan.  It became clear that the Japanese would not agree to President Roosevelt’s demand for unconditional surrender, and that conquering Japan itself would cost the lives of perhaps a million American soldiers. The Japanese were ready to fight to the death for their country.  Increasingly Japanese fighter pilots became kamikaze by flying their planes in suicide missions directly into American ships.

 

The scientists eventually succeeded, and rushed a few prototype bombs to the [[military]] for potential use near the end of the war in 1945.  By then, Americans had won many victories against the Japanese in the Pacific, including capturing the island of Leyte in the Philippines in October 1944, and then defeating the Japanese at the Battle of Leyte Gulf.  The U.S. Marines defeated the Japanese at Iwo Jima, resulting in a famous picture of several Marines raising the American flag.  But the American capture of Okinawa in June 1945 proved to be one of the bloodiest land battles of the war with Japan.  It became clear that the Japanese would not agree to President Roosevelt’s demand for unconditional surrender, and that conquering Japan itself would cost the lives of perhaps a million American soldiers (The Allied plan for possibly invading Japan was called Operation ''Downfall'', and it was cancelled due to the success of the atomic bomb attacks). The Japanese were ready to fight to the death for their country.  Increasingly, Japanese fighter pilots became kamikazes by flying their planes in suicide missions directly into American ships.

President Roosevelt, who knew he was dying but kept it from the American people in the election in November 1944, passed away on April 12, 1945.  He thus served less than three months of his new term.  His vice president, Harry S Truman, became president despite not having been elected.  Truman was a decent man from Missouri but was beyond his depth as the leader of the nation.  He was not even aware that the Manhattan Project existed until late 1944.  Joseph Stalin knew more about the progress of the Manhattan Project, through spies, than Truman did.  Truman’s personality was to act impulsively, and he spent much of his spare time playing simple card games with friends.

President Roosevelt, who knew he was dying but kept it from the American people in the election in November 1944, passed away on April 12, 1945.  He thus served less than three months of his new term.  His vice president, Harry S Truman, became president despite not having been elected.  Truman was a decent man from Missouri but was beyond his depth as the leader of the nation.  He was not even aware that the Manhattan Project existed until late 1944.  Joseph Stalin knew more about the progress of the Manhattan Project, through spies, than Truman did.  Truman’s personality was to act impulsively, and he spent much of his spare time playing simple card games with friends.

===Victory===

===Victory===

Just as the American soldiers had defeated Germany in World War I, the Americans did it again. Operation Overlord was the code name for the massive challenge of retaking Continental Europe, liberating France from the Nazis, and conquering Germany itself.  It began on “D-Day”, June 6, 1944, with the largest invasion in the history of the world when the Allied forces did a surprise landing at Normandy, France.  There were so many ships and people in the ocean that it obscured the water below.  Germany killed many of the initial soldiers who hit the beaches, but the Americans overpowered them and started moving through France. With America’s massive industrial capacity added to the Allies, they could now defeat the Axis Powers.

Just as the American soldiers had defeated Germany in World War I, the Americans did it again (this time with help from the Soviet Union). Operation Overlord was the code name for the massive challenge of retaking Continental Europe, liberating France from the Nazis, and conquering Germany itself.  It began on “D-Day”, June 6, 1944, with the largest invasion in the history of the world when the Allied forces staged a surprise landing at Normandy, France.  There were so many ships and people in the ocean that it obscured the water below.  German defense forces killed many of the initial soldiers who hit the beaches, but the Americans overpowered them and started moving through France. They were aided by the fact that Field Marshal Rommel was on leave on June 6. With America’s massive industrial capacity added to the Allies, they could now defeat the Axis Powers.

American General George Patton had perfected the art of lightning-fast tank maneuvers and unrestrained aggression, and he was the only Allied leader feared by the Germans.  A few years earlier, Patton led his men in war games in Atlanta that were supposed to last for many days.  Patton’s aggression and the enthusiasm of his men enabled him to win the games in just a day or two.  Patton inspired a unique loyalty and spirit in his men that enabled his troops to win quicker and with few casualties than everyone else.

American General [[George Patton]] had perfected the art of lightning-fast tank maneuvers and unrestrained aggression, and he was the only Allied leader feared by the Germans.  A few years earlier, Patton led his men in war games in Atlanta that were supposed to last for many days.  Patton’s aggression and the enthusiasm of his men enabled him to win the games in just a day or two.  Patton inspired a unique loyalty and spirit in his men that enabled his troops to win quicker and with few casualties than anyone else.

Patton’s Third Army rolled through France, Belgium, Luxembourg and much of the Netherlands, routing the Germans everywhere.  The best the German army could do was turn and run.  The French citizens lined the streets of Paris to cheer the Americans when they arrived and freed the city.  One of Hitler’s last orders to his general in Paris was to detonate bombs to destroy great artworks at the Louvre Museum, which holds the Mona Lisa.  The Nazi general received the order but disobeyed it.

Patton’s Third Army rolled through France, Belgium, Luxembourg and much of the Netherlands, routing the Germans everywhere.  The best the German army could do was turn and run.  The French citizens lined the streets of Paris to cheer the Americans when they arrived and freed the city.  One of Hitler’s last orders to his general in Paris was to detonate bombs to destroy great artworks at the Louvre Museum, which holds the Mona Lisa.  The Nazi general received the order but disobeyed it.

Hitler did not plan on surrendering.  He launched a massive counterattack at the Battle of the Bulge (December 16-26, 1944), also known as the Ardennes Campaign.  This was the last major German counteroffensive against advancing Allied troops during World War II. Hitler caught the Allied forces by surprise and inflicted heavy casualties. It was bitterly cold.  

Hitler did not plan on surrendering.  He launched a massive counterattack at the Battle of the Bulge (December 16-26, 1944), also known as the Ardennes Campaign.  This was the last major German counteroffensive against advancing Allied troops during World War II. Hitler caught the Allied forces by surprise and inflicted heavy casualties on them in the bitterly cold Ardennes Forest.  

The German forces snuck through wooded and hilly country in Luxembourg and Belgium with the goal of reaching Antwerp. The Nazis amassed three armies including 250,000 soldiers for a massive attack against the Allies in the Ardennes Forest. The Nazis surrounded the 101st Airborne Division in southern Belgium, and demanded their surrender. The Americans refused to surrender.  This battle was the largest ever fought by the U.S. Army.  Nearly 600,000 American Soldiers fought in this historical battle.

The German forces snuck through wooded and hilly country in Luxembourg and Belgium with the goal of reaching Antwerp. The Nazis amassed three armies totaling 250,000 soldiers for a massive attack against the Allies in the Ardennes Forest. The Nazis surrounded the 101st Airborne Division in southern Belgium, and demanded their surrender. The Americans refused to surrender.  This battle was the largest ever fought by the U.S. Army.  Nearly 600,000 American Soldiers fought in this historical battle.

   

   

Allied resistance, especially the heroic effort by the 101st Airborne division, slowed the German forces just enough to prevent the Germans from making it to Antwerp. General Patton directed the Third Army to pray, and then he counterattacked.  He relieved the German pressure on the 101st Airborne Division and by February the Germans were in full retreat.  

Allied resistance, especially the heroic effort by the 101st Airborne division, slowed the German forces just enough to prevent the Germans from making it to Antwerp. General Patton directed the Third Army to pray, and then he counterattacked.  He relieved the German pressure on the 101st Airborne Division and by February the Germans were in full retreat.