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In learning history, it helps to look for unifying themes to organize events in your mind.  One theme that helps explain American history well is the overall expansion of Christianity for 2000 years.  Why did [[Christopher Columbus]] and other explorers risk their lives to come to the New World?  To spread Christianity.  Why did families then risk their lives to settle here?  To establish religious communities free of persecution.  Two hundred years later, why did Massachusetts prohibit slavery and why did abolitionists like President [[John Quincy Adams]] devote their lives to ending slavery?  Their religious values told them slavery was wrong.

In learning history, it helps to look for unifying themes to organize events in your mind.  One theme that helps explain American history well is the overall expansion of Christianity for 2000 years.  Why did [[Christopher Columbus]] and other explorers risk their lives to come to the New World?  To spread Christianity.  Why did families then risk their lives to settle here?  To establish religious communities free of persecution.  Two hundred years later, why did Massachusetts prohibit slavery and why did abolitionists like President [[John Quincy Adams]] devote their lives to ending slavery?  Their religious values told them slavery was wrong.

There are other possible themes also.  How about the desire to make more money?  How about the urge for self-government, to be in charge of oneself free from a monarchy?  How about the advance of technology and its affect on how we live?  There are many possible themes to American history and we will have fun debates about them.

There are other possible themes also.  How about the desire to make more money?  How about the urge for self-government, to be in charge of oneself free from a monarchy?  How about the advance of technology and its effect on how we live?  There are many possible themes to American history and we will have fun debates about them.

== Organizing History ==

== Organizing History ==

From 1789 until today, we have had an American President.  He is not more important than others.  If I had to name the ten most important Americans in history, I would include only one president in the list (the first one, [[George Washington]]).  But memorizing the list of 44 presidents can help you organize all the other facts.  When someone asks me what was happening in 1962, I think of who was president and then remember the issues of that time.  The presidents become like drawers in a cabinet where you might put your clothes.  In the "cabinet" of presidents, each drawer is filled with issues and events that happened during each presidency.

From 1789 until today, we have had an American President.  He is not more important than others.  If I had to name the ten most important Americans in history, I would include only one president in the list (the first one, [[George Washington]]).  But memorizing the list of 44 presidents can help you organize all the other facts.  When someone asks me what was happening in 1962, I think of who was president and then remember the issues of that time.  The presidents become like drawers in a cabinet where you might put your clothes.  In the "cabinet" of presidents, each drawer is filled with issues and events that happened during each presidency.

But before 1789 there was no president.  How are we going to organize that?  One way is to focus on the three most important colonies, [[Virginia]] (1607), [[Massachusetts]] (1620) and [[Pennsylvania]] (1681), and relate the other ten colonies and events to them.  Another way is to look at the battles that occurred before the [[American Revolution]], such as the [[French and Indian War]] in 1754-1760.

But before 1789 there was no president.  How are we going to organize that?  One way is to focus on the three most important colonies, [[Virginia]] (founded in 1607), [[Massachusetts]] (1620) and [[Pennsylvania]] (1681), and relate the other ten colonies and events to them.  Another way is to look at the battles that occurred before the [[American Revolution]], such as the [[French and Indian War]] in 1754-1760.

By the end of this course, you will be able to hear an event and describe what was going on at that time.  You will be able to tell me what happened before the event, and what happened afterward.

By the end of this course, you will be able to hear an event and describe what was going on at that time.  You will be able to tell me what happened before the event, and what happened afterward.

Some old mounds reflecting Indian settlements in the territory which is now the United States of America have been discovered, such as the Adena burial mounds and Mississippian platform towns.<ref>Melissa L. Meyer, Dean R. Snow, Charles L. Cohen, Russell Thornton, Donald A. Grinde Jr., Leah Dilworth "Indian History and Culture"  The Oxford Companion to United States History. Paul S. Boyer, ed. Oxford University Press 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  University of Tampa.  4 August 2008  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t119.e0758-s0002></ref>  The [[Cahokia Mounds]] in Southern Illinois (just east of [[St. Louis]]) reflect an Indian community dating back as early as A.D. 1000 or 1100.<ref>http://www.cahokiamounds.com/mystery_01.html</ref>  That community practiced human sacrifice, as did the [[Aztecs]] and [[Mayans]] in [[Mesoamerica]] (Mexico and Central America) and the [[Incas]] in [[South America]] prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquerors.

Some old mounds reflecting Indian settlements in the territory which is now the United States of America have been discovered, such as the Adena burial mounds and Mississippian platform towns.<ref>Melissa L. Meyer, Dean R. Snow, Charles L. Cohen, Russell Thornton, Donald A. Grinde Jr., Leah Dilworth "Indian History and Culture"  The Oxford Companion to United States History. Paul S. Boyer, ed. Oxford University Press 2001. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.  University of Tampa.  4 August 2008  <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t119.e0758-s0002></ref>  The [[Cahokia Mounds]] in Southern Illinois (just east of [[St. Louis]]) reflect an Indian community dating back as early as A.D. 1000 or 1100.<ref>http://www.cahokiamounds.com/mystery_01.html</ref>  That community practiced human sacrifice, as did the [[Aztecs]] and [[Mayans]] in [[Mesoamerica]] (Mexico and Central America) and the [[Incas]] in [[South America]] prior to the arrival of the Spanish conquerors.

When talking about Indian cultures, keep in mind that the Indians in what is now the United States were a diverse selection of cultures, which included [[nomads]] from the Great Plains in the Midwest, more settled colonies in the West, and quasi-governmental systems with formal treaties among the Eastern tribes.  Most tribes did not have a formal monetary systems, but the Cherokee and the Iroquois Nations did have business transactions.  None of the tribes of the North American continent had any formal writing systems. The Indians did introduce [[tobacco]] and [[corn]] to Europeans, and they became widely popular back in Europe.  Europeans also brought new things to the Indians, such as horses and guns.

When talking about Indian cultures, keep in mind that the Indians in what is now the United States were a diverse selection of cultures, which included [[nomads]] from the Great Plains in the Midwest, Indian settlements in the West, and among Eastern tribes there were quasi-governmental systems with formal treaties.  Most tribes did not have a formal monetary systems, but the Cherokee and the Iroquois Nations did have business transactions.  None of the tribes of the North American continent had any formal writing systems. The Indians did introduce [[tobacco]] and [[corn]] to Europeans, which became widely popular back in Europe.  Europeans also brought new things to the Indians, such as horses and guns.

Modern historians claim that the Viking [[Leif Ericson]] established a "Vinland" colony around A.D. 1000 on the island now known as [[Newfoundland]], in the far east of Canada.  There is limited physical evidence of the colony and it is not known what eventually happened to it. The colony, if it did exist, did not last long, and there is no sign of any Viking colony in what is now the United States.<ref>"People have been looking hard for hundreds of years and there is no archaeological evidence in this part [New England]— it's certainly possible, the Vikings were incredible boat handlers — '''but there is no evidence'''," observed one university history professor.[http://farshores.org/a04viki.htm]</ref>

Modern historians claim that the Viking [[Leif Ericson]] established a "Vinland" colony around A.D. 1000 on the island now known as [[Newfoundland]], in the far east of Canada.  There is limited physical evidence of the colony and it is not known what eventually happened to it. The colony, if it did exist, did not last long, and there is no sign of any Viking colony in what is now the United States.<ref>"People have been looking hard for hundreds of years and there is no archaeological evidence in this part [New England]— it's certainly possible, the Vikings were incredible boat handlers — '''but there is no evidence'''," observed one university history professor.[http://farshores.org/a04viki.htm]</ref>

'''Exam note''': there are no more than a few questions about the Pre-Columbian (prior to Christopher Columbus) period on any American history exam.

'''Exam note''': there are no more than a few questions about the Pre-Columbian (prior to Christopher Columbus) period on any American history exam.

'''Questions: when do you think Native Americans first settled North America?  Do you think the Vikings really had a colony in Newfoundland, and why might one be skeptical about this claim?'''

'''Questions: when do you think Native Americans first settled North America?  Do you think the Vikings really had a colony in Newfoundland, and why might one be skeptical about that claim?'''

== Exploration (Columbian Period) ==

== Exploration (Columbian Period) ==

Starting in the Middle Ages, Christian Europe began to use its knowledge, wealth and [[faith]] to extend beyond its horizons.  Christian Europeans fought the Holy [[Crusades]] from 1095 to 1291 to protect pilgrims to [[Jerusalem]] against Muslim attacks.  Some Europeans were motivated to spread the [[Gospel]].  Others were motivated by a desire to increase their wealth, such as by finding gold.   

Starting in the Middle Ages, Christian Europe began to use its knowledge, wealth and [[faith]] to extend beyond its horizons.  Christian Europeans fought the Holy [[Crusades]] from 1095 to 1291 to protect pilgrims to [[Jerusalem]] against Muslim attacks.  Some Europeans were motivated to spread the [[Gospel]].  Others were motivated by a desire to increase their wealth, such as by finding gold.   

People in [[Ancient Greece]] knew that the world was round, and that it should be possible to reach the Orient by traveling West '''''around''''' the world.  Ironically, it was the very knowledge of the Earth's circumference that deterred a westward passage - the distance to the Orient in that direction was beyond the open-water range of ships in that period.  Steamships did not exist yet; these ships relied on sailing, using wind to reach their destination, and wind patterns did not always cooperate.   

People in [[Ancient Greece]] knew that the world was round, and that it should be possible to reach the Orient by traveling west '''''around''''' the world.  Ironically, it was the very knowledge of the Earth's circumference that deterred a westward passage - the distance to the Orient in that direction was beyond the open-water range of ships in that period.  Steamships did not exist yet; the ships in the 1400s relied on sailing, using wind to reach their destination, but wind patterns did not always cooperate.   

Thus, centuries passed before one man inspired by the Christian [[faith]] was determined to change the world of his time.  By the young age of 10 the Italian [[Christopher Columbus]] was working at sea, already on his way to becoming a master navigator and mariner.  He learned the patterns of the Atlantic trade winds, and their ability to carry sailing vessels across vast distances both eastward and westward before one's provisions would run out.  With the charts he developed, he was certain he could reach Asia on a westbound route more efficiently than others could.

Thus, centuries passed before one man inspired by the Christian [[faith]] was determined to change the world of his time.  By the young age of 10, the Italian [[Christopher Columbus]] was working at sea, already on his way to becoming a master navigator and mariner.  He learned the patterns of the Atlantic trade winds, and their ability to carry sailing vessels across vast distances both eastward and westward before one's provisions would run out.  With the charts he developed, he was certain he could reach Asia on a westbound route more efficiently than others could.

It took enormous courage, determination and financial support to sail West into the complete unknown.  It also took more than a desire to get rich, because there were easier ways to make money.  That additional desire was a passion to spread Christianity to new civilizations.  In 1482, [[Christopher Columbus]] sought financing to sail West in order to find an easier way to reach the Far East, by sailing westward rather than going eastward from Europe to reach India and Japan.  Columbus tried Portugal for raising money, but it already had its own successful explorers.  Portugal declined to support him, but Columbus persisted for ten more years.   

It took enormous courage, determination and financial support to sail west into the complete unknown.  It also took more than a desire to get rich, because there were easier ways to make money.  That additional desire was a passion to spread Christianity to new civilizations.  In 1482, [[Christopher Columbus]] sought financing to sail west in order to find an easier way to reach the Far East, by sailing westward rather than going eastward from Europe to reach India and Japan.  Columbus tried Portugal for raising money, but it already had its own successful explorers.  Portugal declined to support him, but Columbus persisted for ten more years.   

In 1492 Spain drove out the last of the Muslims and re-established itself as a Christian nation, and King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain granted Columbus's request for funding his voyage in that same year.  Spain continues to honor Columbus Day just as the United States does.

In 1492 Spain drove out the last of the Muslims and re-established itself as a Christian nation, and King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain granted Columbus's request for funding his voyage in that same year.  Spain continues to honor Columbus Day just as the United States does.