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Around 800 B.C., the Greeks formed their alphabet by borrowing from the Phoenician alphabet and adding vowels to it, and this sparked the progress and learning that we remember ancient Greece for.  The spread of this new alphabet provides written records pf Greek society, culture, and life which survive today.  Greece divided itself into many small self-governing communities because of Greek geography, which made travel and communication between areas difficult.  In Greece, every region is separated from its neighbors by water or mountain ranges.  '''Once again we see how geography shaped history: the terrain of ancient Greece led the people to create city-states'''.  (Earlier we saw how the geography of Egypt supported the rise and power of that civilization and prevented its boundaries from changing, even when it was conquered.)

Around 800 B.C., the Greeks formed their alphabet by borrowing from the Phoenician alphabet and adding vowels to it, and this sparked the progress and learning that we remember ancient Greece for.  The spread of this new alphabet provides written records pf Greek society, culture, and life which survive today.  Greece divided itself into many small self-governing communities because of Greek geography, which made travel and communication between areas difficult.  In Greece, every region is separated from its neighbors by water or mountain ranges.  '''Once again we see how geography shaped history: the terrain of ancient Greece led the people to create city-states'''.  (Earlier we saw how the geography of Egypt supported the rise and power of that civilization and prevented its boundaries from changing, even when it was conquered.)

Magnificent Greek literature began to appear almost as soon as the Phoenician alphabet became the standard.  Homer wrote the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' in the 800s or 700s B.C., and they remain great works of literature to this day.  They describe adventures arising from the mythical "Trojan War" caused by the Greek gods, which included the famous gift of a "Trojan horse" to fool the enemy.  In our internet era, a "Trojan horse" is a program or download that looks helpful, but actually contains a harmful computer virus.  Greek mythology remains a powerful influence to this day, as the names for gods have inspired many common terms today, such as "Achilles heel," "Amazon", "atlas" and "titans".  Some would say that modern sports heroes, music stars, and media figures are appealing to the public in the same way as Greek mythological gods were so popular nearly 3000 years ago.

Magnificent Greek literature began to appear almost as soon as the Phoenician alphabet became the standard.  Homer wrote the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' in the 800s or 700s B.C., and they remain great works of literature to this day.  They describe adventures arising from the mythical "Trojan War" caused by the Greek gods, which included the famous gift of a "Trojan horse" to fool the enemy.  In our internet era, a "Trojan horse" is a program or download that looks helpful, but actually contains a harmful computer virus.  Greek mythology remains a powerful influence even now, as the names for gods have inspired many common terms today, such as "Achilles heel," "Amazon", "atlas" and "titans".  Some would say that modern sports heroes, music stars, and media figures are appealing to the public in the same way as Greek mythological gods were so popular nearly 3000 years ago.

Poetry and fables developed.  Aesop's Fables were written in the 600s B.C., containing popular insights repeated to this day.  For example, the term "sour grapes" applies to someone who complains after he loses, based on Aesop's fable about the fox unable to reach grapes.  Aesop was smart enough to know that foxes are the only canines that like grapes.  All the Fables are now available for easy access online.<ref>http://aesopfables.com/</ref>

Poetry and fables developed.  Aesop's Fables were written around 600 B.C., containing popular insights well worth remembering.  For example, the term "sour grapes" applies to someone who complains after he loses, based on Aesop's fable about the fox unable to reach grapes.  Aesop was smart enough to know that foxes are the only canines that like grapes.  All the Fables are now available for easy access online.<ref>http://aesopfables.com/</ref>

One of Aesop's Fables is "The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing," which conveys a message about the harmful power of deceit:

One of Aesop's Fables is "The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing," which conveys a message about the harmful power of deceit:

The government of Athens in this early period was controlled by aristocrats who owned land.  They elected "archons", who were the government officials who made the law.  But in the 600s B.C., tyrants rose to power.  The tyrants were primarily rich upstarts who illegally took over the government by violent means and catered to the lower classes to maintain popularity.   

The government of Athens in this early period was controlled by aristocrats who owned land.  They elected "archons", who were the government officials who made the law.  But in the 600s B.C., tyrants rose to power.  The tyrants were primarily rich upstarts who illegally took over the government by violent means and catered to the lower classes to maintain popularity.   

Athens was then ruled by a series of tyrants.  One tyrant was "Draco", who wrote strict laws that had the same penalty of death for every crime, no matter how minor.  The negative term "draconian laws" is used to today to criticize overly rigid rules.  But Draco was not all bad:  he granted voting rights only to people who would bear arms in self-defense.<ref>http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/article_democracy_development?page=3&greekEncoding=UnicodeC</ref>  Other tyrants included Pisistratus (transferred estates from the nobles to the peasants and started building projects to create jobs) and Cleistenes (created the democratic Council of 500 and promoted freedom of speech).  Cleisthenes is also believed to have founded "ostracism", a system by which any citizen believed to have too much power by other citizens could be voted into exile for ten years, or "ostracized".   

Athens was then ruled by a series of tyrants.  One tyrant was "Draco", who wrote strict laws that had the same penalty of death for every crime, no matter how minor.  The negative term "draconian laws" is used to today to criticize overly rigid rules.  But Draco was not all bad:  he granted voting rights only to people who would bear arms in self-defense!<ref>http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/article_democracy_development?page=3&greekEncoding=UnicodeC</ref>  Other tyrants included Pisistratus (transferred estates from the nobles to the peasants and started building projects to create jobs) and Cleisthenes (created the democratic Council of 500 and promoted freedom of speech).  Cleisthenes is also believed to have founded "ostracism", a system by which any citizen believed to have too much power by other citizens could be voted into exile for ten years, or "ostracized".   

In 594 B.C. the Athenians selected Solon to revise their laws.  He was a reformer who allowed most "citizens" (males descended from citizens) to vote.  This was the beginning of a real democracy.

In 594 B.C. the Athenians selected Solon to revise their laws.  He was a reformer who allowed most "citizens" (males descended from citizens) to vote.  This was the beginning of a real democracy.

The Persian King Cyrus conquered the Ionian Greek city-states on the western shore of Asia Minor in 546 B.C., but in 499 B.C. Athens encouraged support for a revolution against the Persian empire.  Athens came to the aid of the Ionian city-states when they revolted against their Persian masters.  Other Greek city-states also helped the Ionian city-states.  

The Persian King Cyrus conquered the Ionian Greek city-states on the western shore of Asia Minor in 546 B.C., but in 499 B.C. Athens encouraged support for a revolution against the Persian empire.  Athens came to the aid of the Ionian city-states when they revolted against their Persian masters.  Other Greek city-states also helped the Ionian city-states.  

Furious, Darius suppressed the revolution and then sought to punish Athens in particular.  In 490 B.C., Darius brought his army to the plains of Marathon, just north of Athens and prepared to invade the rich city-state.  Outnumbered ten to one by the Persians, the Athenians sent an athlete named Philippides to run 150 miles to Sparta in an attempt to enlist the aid of the Spartans.  Ironically, the Spartans — with their military-obsessed society — refused to come, as they were in the middle of a festival!  However, Athens proved strong enough to defeat the mighty Persians on her own and won a staggering victory on the plains of Marathon.  To this day, runners participate in the long "marathon" run in imitation of the remarkable athlete Philippides.

Furious, Darius suppressed the revolution and then sought to punish Athens in particular.  In 490 B.C., Darius brought his army to the plains of Marathon, just north of Athens and prepared to invade the rich city-state.  Outnumbered ten to one by the Persians, the Athenians sent an athlete named Philippides to run 150 miles to Sparta in an attempt to enlist the aid of the Spartans.  Ironically, the Spartans — with their military-obsessed society — refused to come, as they were in the middle of a festival!  However, Athens proved strong enough to defeat the mighty Persians on her own and won a staggering victory on the plains of Marathon.  Good joggers imitate the long "marathon" run as inspired by the remarkable athlete Philippides.

Xerxes, who had succeeded Darius, tried again in 480 B.C. to defeat Greece.  This time he had a massive army of 200,000 Persians and a strong navy.  He marched the army to a narrow pass in the mountains at Thermopylae.  But he was met by 300 Spartans, the best soldiers in the world, and they gave their lives to delay the Persians at the pass.  Ultimately the Persians broke through the mountains by using an alternate route given to them by a Greek traitor.  The Persians then conquered and ransacked ("sacked") Athens.  But Athens was able to strike back and defeat the Persian navy at Salamis in 479 B.C., and went on to conquer the Persian army the same year at the Battle of Plataea.  Athens had won and became the dominant city-state.

Xerxes, who had succeeded Darius, tried again in 480 B.C. to defeat Greece.  This time he had a massive army of 200,000 Persians and a strong navy.  He marched the army to a narrow pass in the mountains at Thermopylae.  But he was met by 300 Spartans, the best soldiers in the world, and they gave their lives to delay the Persians at the pass.  Ultimately the Persians broke through the mountains by using an alternate route given to them by a Greek traitor.  The Persians then conquered and ransacked ("sacked") Athens.  But Athens was able to strike back and defeat the Persian navy at Salamis in 479 B.C., and went on to conquer the Persian army the same year at the Battle of Plataea.  Athens had won and became the dominant city-state.

=== The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) ===

=== The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) ===

Military success breeds abuse of power and jealousy, which leads to war.  The rivals Athens and Sparta began fighting each other in a lengthy series of battles known as the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.).  The war began in 431 B.C., when fighting erupted between Athens and Sparta and its allies.  Athens controlled the sea but Sparta had a strong army.  The Spartan military is famous for its tremendous discipline to this day; boys were trained to be great soldiers beginning at age seven and serving the army from ages 20 to 60.  After 27 years of fighting between Athens and Sparta, the Athenian leader Nicias negotiated the Peace of Nicias (421 B.C.).

Military success breeds abuse of power and jealousy, which leads to war.  The rivals Athens and Sparta began fighting each other in a lengthy series of battles known as the Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.).  The war began in 431 B.C., when fighting erupted between Athens and Sparta and its allies.  Athens controlled the sea but Sparta had a strong army.  The Spartan military is famous for its tremendous discipline; boys were trained to be great soldiers beginning at age seven and serving the army from ages 20 to 60.  After 27 years of fighting between Athens and Sparta, the Athenian leader Nicias negotiated the Peace of Nicias (421 B.C.).

But the peace lasted only a few years.  Fighting resumed, and Sparta defeated the combined armies of Athens and her allies at Mantinea.  In 415 B.C. a radical new leader of Athens, Alcibiades, convinced the Athenian Assembly to invade Syracuse, a large city in Sicily that was attacking allies of Athens.  Alcibiades had dreams of conquering Sicily entirely in order to form a massive new empire.  But his plan was a total disaster.  The end was near for Athens, which was weakened further by a plague that killed much of her population.  Sparta then had a fleet to challenge Athens on the seas, and benefited from an extraordinary military leader named Lysander.  He seized Hellespont to cut off Athens' grain imports and threaten Athens with starvation.  Athens sent all the men and resources it had left to confront and fight him, but failed at Aegospotami in 405 B.C.

But the peace lasted only a few years.  Fighting resumed, and Sparta defeated the combined armies of Athens and her allies at Mantinea.  In 415 B.C. a radical new leader of Athens, Alcibiades, convinced the Athenian Assembly to invade Syracuse, a large city in Sicily that was attacking allies of Athens.  Alcibiades had dreams of conquering Sicily entirely in order to form a massive new empire.  But his plan was a total disaster.  The end was near for Athens, which was weakened further by a plague that killed much of her population.  Sparta then had a fleet to challenge Athens on the seas, and benefited from an extraordinary military leader named Lysander.  He seized Hellespont to cut off Athens' grain imports and threaten Athens with starvation.  Athens sent all the men and resources it had left to confront and fight him, but failed at Aegospotami in 405 B.C.

Plato's greatest work was his book called "The Republic," which forms the foundation for the American republican system of government.  The people typically do not vote directly on issues, but elect representatives who then cast hopefully more informed votes on legislation.  In the ideal state of government imagined by Plato, philosophers ruled the country.

Plato's greatest work was his book called "The Republic," which forms the foundation for the American republican system of government.  The people typically do not vote directly on issues, but elect representatives who then cast hopefully more informed votes on legislation.  In the ideal state of government imagined by Plato, philosophers ruled the country.

Plato's finest student was Aristotle, perhaps the greatest philosopher of all time.  Aristotle lived from 384-322 B.C., and wrote a treatise that is taught in the finest university philosophy departments to this day.  Aristotle came to the Academy when he was 17 and remained there until the death of Plato twenty years later.  But Aristotle's approach was the opposite of Plato's: Aristotle thought experience was the key to knowledge, and embarked on the massive task of observing and compiling as much information as possible.  In contrast to Plato's interest in physics and math, Aristotle was fascinated by biology and classified over 500 animal species.  He ultimately founded his own school, the Lyceum, and equipped it with specimens, libraries, maps and other accouterments found in modern universities.  Less impressive was how Aristotle defended the usefulness of slavery.

Plato's finest student was Aristotle, perhaps the greatest philosopher of all time.  Aristotle lived from 384-322 B.C., and wrote a treatise that is still taught in the finest university philosophy departments.  Aristotle came to the Academy when he was 17 and remained there until the death of Plato twenty years later.  But Aristotle's approach was the opposite of Plato's: Aristotle thought experience was the key to knowledge, and embarked on the massive task of observing and compiling as much information as possible.  In contrast to Plato's interest in physics and math, Aristotle was fascinated by biology and classified over 500 animal species.  He ultimately founded his own school, the Lyceum, and equipped it with specimens, libraries, maps and other accouterments found in modern universities.  Less impressive was how Aristotle defended the usefulness of slavery.

Another disciple of Socrates, Antisthenes, founded Cynicism, a philosophy which, not surprisingly in light of his name "Cynicism", focuses on the negative aspects of life.  The cynics believed the cares and pleasures of the natural world were small, and they rejected materialism.  Only the pursuit of virtue could bring happiness.  They believed no divine force existed, and that only through extreme self-discipline could virtue and simplicity be attained and happiness found.  Diogenes was the most famous "Cynic".   

Another disciple of Socrates, Antisthenes, founded Cynicism, a philosophy which, not surprisingly in light of his name "Cynicism", focuses on the negative aspects of life.  The cynics believed the cares and pleasures of the natural world were small, and they rejected materialism.  Only the pursuit of virtue could bring happiness.  They believed no divine force existed, and that only through extreme self-discipline could virtue and simplicity be attained and happiness found.  Diogenes was the most famous "Cynic".   

Many historians credit the Greeks for "humanism", by which historians mean the Greek emphasis on reason, ethics and rational thinking rather than religion.  But the Greeks did not choose to reject religion the way that modern humanists do.  Instead, the Greeks advanced knowledge as best they could before the advent of Christianity.

Many historians credit the Greeks for "humanism", by which historians mean the Greek emphasis on reason, ethics and rational thinking rather than religion.  But the Greeks did not choose to reject religion the way that modern humanists do.  Instead, the Greeks advanced knowledge as best they could before the advent of Christianity.

Greek plays remain famous to this day.  There were two types: the tragedy and the comedy.  In a Greek tragedy, the main character has a flaw (such as arrogance) that causes him to fail.  Playwrights of tragedies included Euripides ("Medea") and Sophocles ("Antigone" and "Oedipus Rex").  The comedies consisted of humor and satire, and the leading playwright was Aristophanes ("Lysistrata").

Greek plays remain famous.  There were two types: the tragedy and the comedy.  In a Greek tragedy, the main character has a flaw (such as arrogance) that causes him to fail.  Playwrights of tragedies included Euripides ("Medea") and Sophocles ("Antigone" and "Oedipus Rex").  The comedies consisted of humor and satire, and the leading playwright was Aristophanes ("Lysistrata").

Not everything in Ancient Greece was great.  It was polytheistic, worshiping many gods like Zeus and Hercules.  The Greek gods were superhuman, but not divine.  The Greek gods cared little about ethics or morality, and were the least influential aspect of the Greek culture.  At most, this tradition of polytheism inspired some colorful literature and art.  At its worst, it inspired silly rituals.  For example, ceremonies known as "oracles" in which priests tried to predict the future by looking at the internal body parts of animal sacrifices — a crude process called "divination".

Not everything in Ancient Greece was great.  It was polytheistic, worshiping many gods like Zeus and Hercules.  The Greek gods were superhuman, but not divine.  The Greek gods cared little about ethics or morality, and were the least influential aspect of the Greek culture.  At most, this tradition of polytheism inspired some colorful literature and art.  At its worst, it inspired silly rituals.  For example, ceremonies known as "oracles" in which priests tried to predict the future by looking at the internal body parts of animal sacrifices — a crude process called "divination".

=== Persia ===

=== Persia ===

Persia was the "Land of the Aryans," and in 1935 the name Persia was changed simply to Iran.  To this day oriental rugs from Iran are called "Persian rugs."  These rugs are considered the best in the world and were banned as imports for a long time after Iranian students took Americans hostage in 1980.

Persia was the "Land of the Aryans," and in 1935 the name Persia was changed simply to Iran.  Even now oriental rugs from Iran are called "Persian rugs."  These rugs are considered the best in the world and were banned as imports for a long time after Iranian students took Americans hostage in 1980.

The Aryans were nomadic people who migrated into India through the Kyber Pass around 1500 B.C.  The language in ancient Persia was Avestan and in Northern India it was Sanskrit.  All major European and Indian languages are considered related to it.  Hebrew and Arabic are not.

The Aryans were nomadic people who migrated into India through the Kyber Pass around 1500 B.C.  The language in ancient Persia was Avestan and in Northern India it was Sanskrit.  All major European and Indian languages are considered related to it.  Hebrew and Arabic are not.