Marcus Junius Brutus

Marcus Junius Brutus
Born	c. 85 BC
Died	23 October 42 BC
Place of Death	Near Philippi, Macedonia
Parents	Marcus Junius Brutus and Servilia
Wife	Porcia Catonis
Occupation	Roman statesman, orator, praetor and military commander
Political Offices	Governor of Cisalpine Gaul; Praetor urbanus (44 BC)
Political Allegiance	Roman Republican faction
Known For	Leadership in the conspiracy to assassinate Gaius Julius Caesar

Marcus Junius Brutus (c. 85–42 BC) was a Roman politician, orator and military commander who became one of the principal leaders of the conspiracy to assassinate Gaius Julius Caesar on 15 March 44 BC, the Ides of March. Brutus maintained that he acted in defence of the Roman Republic against the concentration of political power in the hands of Caesar. However, the assassination failed to restore the traditional republican government and instead precipitated another series of civil wars. Brutus was ultimately defeated by the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, following which he committed suicide.

Early Life and Family

Brutus was the son of Marcus Junius Brutus, a Roman politician, and Servilia, who was the sister of Cato the Younger. His father was killed during the political disturbances following the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the instigation of Pompey the Great. Consequently, Brutus developed a personal hostility towards Pompey.

His maternal family belonged to the distinguished Servilia gens. Brutus was also the nephew of Cato the Younger, who became one of the most important influences upon his political and philosophical development.

Servilia maintained a long-standing romantic relationship with Julius Caesar. Plutarch records that Caesar believed there was a possibility that Brutus was his own son, since Brutus had been born at approximately the time when Caesar's relationship with Servilia was particularly intense. This alleged paternity remains unproven.

Brutus was traditionally associated with the ancestry of Lucius Junius Brutus, the legendary founder of the Roman Republic who led the expulsion of the Tarquins. This claimed descent was politically significant, particularly given Brutus's eventual involvement in Caesar's assassination. However, Plutarch records that the genealogical connection was disputed even in antiquity. Some writers questioned whether the original Lucius Junius Brutus had left descendants after executing his sons. The ancestry should therefore not be regarded as conclusively established.

Education and Philosophy

Brutus received a substantial education in Greek philosophy and rhetoric. Plutarch describes him as particularly devoted to the philosophical tradition associated with Plato and the Old Academy. He also studied the works of other Greek philosophers and developed a reputation for intellectual seriousness and eloquence.

Brutus was an accomplished public speaker and writer. He maintained an important intellectual relationship with Marcus Tullius Cicero, who dedicated his rhetorical works Brutus and Orator to him. Cicero's Brutus, written in 46 BC, is an important history of Roman oratory and includes Brutus as one of its principal interlocutors.

Brutus married Porcia Catonis, the daughter of Cato the Younger. Their marriage further strengthened his association with the republican political tradition represented by Cato.

Political Career

As a young man, Brutus accompanied his uncle Cato to Cyprus, where he assisted in administering the property of the Egyptian king Ptolemy following the king's death. Plutarch records that Brutus initially disliked the administrative responsibilities but eventually applied himself to the task and earned Cato's approval.

When civil war broke out between Pompey and Caesar in 49 BC, Brutus supported Pompey despite his personal hostility towards him. He believed that Pompey's political cause was more defensible than Caesar's and considered it his duty to place the interests of the Roman state above his personal grievances.

Following Pompey's defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC, Brutus sought Caesar's forgiveness. Caesar readily pardoned him and subsequently treated him with considerable favour. Plutarch records that Caesar was particularly pleased when Brutus was discovered alive following the battle.

Caesar subsequently entrusted Brutus with the administration of Cisalpine Gaul. His government was regarded favourably by Plutarch, who contrasts Brutus's moderation with the rapacity of other provincial governors.

For 44 BC, Caesar appointed Brutus to the highly prestigious office of praetor urbanus. Brutus was preferred over Gaius Cassius Longinus, who was also a candidate. Caesar additionally intended Brutus to become consul three years later, in 41 BC.

Conspiracy Against Julius Caesar

Despite his favourable position under Caesar, Brutus became increasingly concerned about the concentration of political power in the hands of the dictator. In February 44 BC, Caesar assumed the title of dictator perpetuo, or dictator for life. His accumulation of honours and extraordinary powers alarmed senators who believed that the traditional institutions of the Republic were being permanently undermined.

Brutus was approached by Gaius Cassius Longinus, who was organising a conspiracy against Caesar. The conspirators considered Brutus's family reputation, political standing and public image essential to the legitimacy of their undertaking. His association with the legendary Lucius Junius Brutus, who had overthrown the Roman monarchy, was particularly important to the symbolism of their cause.

Plutarch describes how writings appeared on Brutus's praetorial tribunal and chair urging him to remember his ancestry and oppose Caesar's growing power. Messages included the exhortations "Thou art asleep, Brutus" and "Thou art not Brutus." Cassius encouraged Brutus to join the conspiracy, and eventually Brutus agreed to take a leading role.

Brutus's motives appear to have involved a combination of republican political convictions, philosophical considerations and the influence of fellow conspirators. Plutarch distinguishes between Brutus, who objected to the concentration of power in one ruler, and Cassius, whose hostility towards Caesar also involved personal grievances.

On 15 March 44 BC, Caesar attended a meeting of the Senate held in the complex of buildings associated with Pompey's Theatre. The conspirators surrounded him and attacked with daggers. The first blow was delivered by Publius Servilius Casca, after which the others joined the attack.

Brutus personally participated in the attack. Plutarch records that Brutus struck Caesar in the groin. According to another account preserved by Plutarch, Caesar initially attempted to defend himself but pulled his toga over his head when he saw Brutus approaching with his drawn dagger. Caesar fell at the base of the statue of Pompey, receiving numerous wounds.

Following Caesar's assassination, Brutus attempted to address the senators, but they fled in confusion. Brutus and the other conspirators subsequently went to the Capitol, displaying their daggers and proclaiming the restoration of Roman liberty.

Aftermath of the Assassination

Initially, Brutus and the other conspirators received a degree of political protection. The Senate voted for an amnesty and sought reconciliation, while also distributing provincial commands and honours to Brutus and his associates.

However, the assassination did not produce the desired restoration of republican government. Following the discovery of Caesar's will and the display of his mutilated body during the public funeral, the Roman populace became violently hostile to the conspirators. The mob burned Caesar's body in the Forum and attempted to attack the houses of those responsible for his murder.

Brutus and Cassius subsequently withdrew from Rome. Their position became increasingly difficult as Antony consolidated his political influence and Caesar's adopted heir, Octavian, emerged as a major political force.

Brutus established himself in the eastern provinces and raised military forces to oppose the Caesarian faction. He and Cassius eventually became the principal military representatives of the republican opposition.

Meanwhile, Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus established the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC. The triumvirs sought to eliminate the remaining republican opposition and avenge Caesar's assassination.

Battle of Philippi and Death

In October 42 BC, the armies of Brutus and Cassius confronted the combined forces of Antony and Octavian near Philippi in Macedonia.

The campaign involved two major engagements. In the first battle, Brutus achieved a victory against the forces commanded by Octavian, overrunning their camp. However, Cassius was defeated by Antony on the other wing. Believing that the republican cause had suffered a general defeat, Cassius committed suicide.

Brutus subsequently assumed command of the combined republican forces. Although he maintained his position for a time and benefited from further military successes, the death of Cassius weakened the republican leadership and contributed to divisions within the army.

The second Battle of Philippi took place on 23 October 42 BC. The forces of Antony and Octavian defeated Brutus's army, effectively ending the organised republican military resistance. Brutus escaped the battlefield with a small group of companions.

Following the defeat, Brutus asked several of his companions to assist him in taking his own life. After they refused, he fell upon his sword. Plutarch records an alternative account in which his companion Strato held the sword while Brutus ran upon it.

Antony subsequently found Brutus's body and ordered that it receive respectful treatment. His ashes were sent to his mother, Servilia.

Philosophy and Writings

Brutus was recognised in Roman society as an accomplished student of philosophy and rhetoric. His philosophical interests were particularly associated with the Platonic Academy, although he also engaged with Stoic ideas.

He was an accomplished public speaker and writer. His surviving literary legacy is fragmentary, but ancient accounts describe his philosophical interests, political writings and correspondence.

Brutus maintained an important intellectual relationship with Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero dedicated his works Brutus and Orator to him. His surviving correspondence with Cicero also provides valuable evidence concerning Roman political affairs following Caesar's assassination.

Historical Legacy

Marcus Junius Brutus remains one of the most controversial figures in Roman history. His supporters regarded the assassination of Caesar as an attempt to preserve republican liberty and prevent the establishment of a monarchy. His opponents regarded the killing of a political leader who had shown Brutus considerable personal favour as an act of betrayal.

Brutus and his supporters presented themselves as liberators of Rome. This interpretation is particularly evident in the famous EID MAR denarius issued during Brutus's eastern military campaign in 43–42 BC. The coin displays his portrait on one side and, on the reverse, a freedman's cap (pileus) between two daggers, accompanied by the inscription EID MAR, referring to the Ides of March. The imagery explicitly celebrates Caesar's assassination as an act of liberation.

In political terms, however, Brutus's undertaking failed. The assassination did not restore the old Roman Republic. Instead, it produced renewed civil war, the defeat of the republican armies and the eventual ascendancy of Octavian, who became Augustus and established the Roman imperial system.

The later literary tradition, particularly William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, popularised Brutus as a tragic figure torn between personal loyalty and political duty. Shakespeare's portrayal has considerably influenced the modern understanding of Brutus, although the historical man was a more complicated political and intellectual figure.

Brutus's life illustrates the political instability of the final decades of the Roman Republic and the difficulties faced by those who attempted to preserve its traditional institutions during the rise of powerful individual rulers.

See also

• Gaius Julius Caesar
• Gaius Cassius Longinus
• Cato the Younger
• Servilia
• Porcia Catonis
• Marcus Tullius Cicero
• Lucius Junius Brutus
• Assassination of Julius Caesar
• Caesar's civil war
• Battle of Philippi
• Second Triumvirate
• Octavian
• Augustus
• Roman Republic