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History of France (view source)

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*see [[Louis XVI]]

*see [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]

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The French Revolution of the 1790s was the decisive event in French ~~history--one~~ that reshaped the nation and brought France into the modern world. The meaning has been contested between historians of the left and right. In recent years the simplistic Marxist interpretation has lost favor, replaced by complexity and by the conservative interpretation of François Furet.<ref> See François Furet and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989)</ref>

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The French Revolution of the 1790s was the decisive event in French history—one that reshaped the nation and brought France into the modern world. The meaning has been contested between historians of the left and right. In recent years the simplistic Marxist interpretation has lost favor, replaced by complexity and by the conservative interpretation of François Furet.<ref>See François Furet and Mona Ozouf, eds. ''A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution'' (1989)</ref>

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Deteriorating economic conditions and popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics were among the principal causes of the [[French Revolution]] (~~1789-99~~).

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Deteriorating economic conditions and popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics were among the principal causes of the [[French Revolution]] (1789–99).

==19th century==

[[Image:Renoir Monet pintando en su jardín de Argenteuil.jpg|thumb|right|300px|French art: [[Claude Monet]] by [[Renoir]].]]

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Although the revolutionaries advocated republican and egalitarian principles of government, France reverted to forms of absolute rule or constitutional monarchy four ~~times--the~~ Empire of [[Napoleon]], the Restoration of Louis XVIII, the reign of Louis-Philippe, and the '''Second Empire''' of [[Napoleon III]]. After the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870), the Third Republic was established and lasted until the military defeat of 1940 at the hands of the Germans.

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Although the revolutionaries advocated republican and egalitarian principles of government, France reverted to forms of absolute rule or constitutional monarchy four times—the Empire of [[Napoleon]], the Restoration of Louis XVIII, the reign of Louis-Philippe, and the '''Second Empire''' of [[Napoleon III]]. After the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870), the Third Republic was established and lasted until the military defeat of 1940 at the hands of the Germans.

===Railways===

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In France, railways became a national medium for the modernization of backward regions, and a leading advocate of this approach was the poet-politician Alphonse de Lamartine. One writer hoped that railways might improve the lot of “populations two or three centuries behind their fellows” and eliminate “the savage instincts born of isolation and misery.” Consequently, France built a centralized system that radiated from Paris (plus lines that cut east to west in the south). This design was intended to achieve political and cultural goals rather than maximize efficiency. After some consolidation, six companies controlled monopolies of their regions, subject to close control by the government in terms of fares, finances, and even minute technical details. The central government department of Ponts et Chaussées [roads and bridges] brought in British engineers and workers, handled much of the construction work, provided engineering expertise and planning, land acquisition, and construction of permanent infrastructure such as the track bed, bridges and tunnels. It also subsidized militarily necessary lines along the German border, which was considered necessary for the national defense. Private operating companies provided management, hired labor, laid the tracks, and built and operated stations. They purchased and maintained the rolling stock—6,000 locomotives were in operation in 1880, which averaged 51,600 passengers a year or 21,200 tons of freight. Much of the equipment was imported from Britain and therefore did not stimulate machinery makers. Although starting the whole system at once was politically expedient, it delayed completion, and forced even more reliance on temporary experts brought in from Britain. Financing was also a problem. The solution was a narrow base of funding through the Rothschilds and the closed circles of the Bourse in Paris, so France did not develop the same kind of national stock exchange that flourished in London and New York. The system did help modernize the parts of rural France it reached, but it did not help create local industrial centers. Critics such as [[Emile Zola]] complained that it never overcame the corruption of the political system, but rather contributed to it. The railways probably helped the industrial revolution in France by facilitating a national market for raw materials, wines, cheeses, and imported manufactured products. Yet the goals set by the French for their railway system were moralistic, political, and military rather than economic. As a result, the freight trains were shorter and less heavily loaded than those in such rapidly industrializing nations such as Britain, Belgium or Germany. Other infrastructure needs in rural France, such as better roads and canals, were neglected because of the expense of the railways, so it seems likely that there were net negative effects in areas not served by the trains.<ref>Patrick O’Brien, ''Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830-1914'' (1983) </ref>

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In France, railways became a national medium for the modernization of backward regions, and a leading advocate of this approach was the poet-politician Alphonse de Lamartine. One writer hoped that railways might improve the lot of “populations two or three centuries behind their fellows” and eliminate “the savage instincts born of isolation and misery.” Consequently, France built a centralized system that radiated from Paris (plus lines that cut east to west in the south). This design was intended to achieve political and cultural goals rather than maximize efficiency. After some consolidation, six companies controlled monopolies of their regions, subject to close control by the government in terms of fares, finances, and even minute technical details. The central government department of Ponts et Chaussées [roads and bridges] brought in British engineers and workers, handled much of the construction work, provided engineering expertise and planning, land acquisition, and construction of permanent infrastructure such as the track bed, bridges and tunnels. It also subsidized militarily necessary lines along the German border, which was considered necessary for the national defense. Private operating companies provided management, hired labor, laid the tracks, and built and operated stations. They purchased and maintained the rolling stock—6,000 locomotives were in operation in 1880, which averaged 51,600 passengers a year or 21,200 tons of freight. Much of the equipment was imported from Britain and therefore did not stimulate machinery makers. Although starting the whole system at once was politically expedient, it delayed completion, and forced even more reliance on temporary experts brought in from Britain. Financing was also a problem. The solution was a narrow base of funding through the Rothschilds and the closed circles of the Bourse in Paris, so France did not develop the same kind of national stock exchange that flourished in London and New York. The system did help modernize the parts of rural France it reached, but it did not help create local industrial centers. Critics such as [[Emile Zola]] complained that it never overcame the corruption of the political system, but rather contributed to it. The railways probably helped the industrial revolution in France by facilitating a national market for raw materials, wines, cheeses, and imported manufactured products. Yet the goals set by the French for their railway system were moralistic, political, and military rather than economic. As a result, the freight trains were shorter and less heavily loaded than those in such rapidly industrializing nations such as Britain, Belgium or Germany. Other infrastructure needs in rural France, such as better roads and canals, were neglected because of the expense of the railways, so it seems likely that there were net negative effects in areas not served by the trains.<ref>Patrick O’Brien, ''Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830-1914'' (1983)</ref>

==20th century==

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[[World War I]] (~~1914-18~~) brought great losses of troops and material. In the 1920s, France established an elaborate system of border defenses (the Maginot Line) and alliances to offset resurgent German strength. Unfortunately for France that defense was based on the trench warfare of World War I and provided a poor plan for the [[Blitzkreig]] tactics that the Germans had developed. France was defeated early in [[World War II]] when it was quickly overrun by [[Nazi Germany]] and was occupied in June 1940. In July, the country was divided into two: one section being ruled directly by the Germans, and a second controlled by the French ([[Vichy France]]) and which the Germans did not occupy. German and Italian forces occupied all of France, including the "Vichy" zone, following the Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942. The "Vichy" government largely acquiesced to German plans, namely in the plunder of French resources and the forceful deportations of tens of thousands of French [[Jews]] living in France to [[concentration camp]]s across Europe, and was even more completely under German control following the German military occupation of November 1942. Economically, a full one-half of France's public sector revenue was appropriated by Germany. After 4 years of occupation and strife, Allied forces liberated France from Germany control in 1944.

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[[World War I]] (1914–18) brought great losses of troops and material. In the 1920s, France established an elaborate system of border defenses (the Maginot Line) and alliances to offset resurgent German strength. Unfortunately for France that defense was based on the trench warfare of World War I and provided a poor plan for the [[Blitzkreig]] tactics that the Germans had developed. France was defeated early in [[World War II]] when it was quickly overrun by [[Nazi Germany]] and was occupied in June 1940. In July, the country was divided into two: one section being ruled directly by the Germans, and a second controlled by the French ([[Vichy France]]) and which the Germans did not occupy. German and Italian forces occupied all of France, including the "Vichy" zone, following the Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942. The "Vichy" government largely acquiesced to German plans, namely in the plunder of French resources and the forceful deportations of tens of thousands of French [[Jews]] living in France to [[concentration camp]]s across Europe, and was even more completely under German control following the German military occupation of November 1942. Economically, a full one-half of France's public sector revenue was appropriated by Germany. After 4 years of occupation and strife, Allied forces liberated France from Germany control in 1944.

===Post 1945===

see [[Charles de Gaulle]]

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Finally, on May 13, 1958, the government structure collapsed as a result of the negative public opinion pressures generated by four years of war in Algeria. A threatened coup led the Parliament to call on General de Gaulle to head the government and prevent civil war. Marking the beginning of the Fifth Republic, he became prime minister in June 1958 and was elected president in December of that year. Also resulting from the Algerian conflict, were decades of increased immigration from the Maghreb states, which functioned to change the composition of French society. The French had believed that the immigrants would assimilate into French society, but over time the opposite occurred as the groups came to think of themselves not so much by their separate African nation ancestory but instead by their Islamic background. Enclaves of 'nations within a nation' would eventually form where all signs would be in Arabic. This would cause further trouble in modern times.

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Seven years later, for the first time in the 20th Century, the people of France went to the polls to elect a president by direct ballot. De Gaulle won re-election with a 55% share of the vote, defeating François Mitterrand. In April 1969, President de Gaulle's government conducted a national referendum on the creation of 21 regions with limited political powers. The government's proposals were defeated, and de Gaulle subsequently resigned. Succeeding him as president of France have been Gaullist [[Georges Pompidou]] (~~1969-74~~), Independent Republican [[Valery Giscard d'Estaing]] (~~1974-81~~), Socialist [[François Mitterrand]] (~~1981-95~~), neo-Gaullist [[Jacques Chirac]] (1995-2007), and [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] (~~2007-present~~).

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Seven years later, for the first time in the 20th Century, the people of France went to the polls to elect a president by direct ballot. De Gaulle won re-election with a 55% share of the vote, defeating François Mitterrand. In April 1969, President de Gaulle's government conducted a national referendum on the creation of 21 regions with limited political powers. The government's proposals were defeated, and de Gaulle subsequently resigned. Succeeding him as president of France have been Gaullist [[Georges Pompidou]] (1969–74), Independent Republican [[Valery Giscard d'Estaing]] (1974–81), Socialist [[François Mitterrand]] (1981–95), neo-Gaullist [[Jacques Chirac]] (1995-2007), and [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] (2007–present).

While France continues to revere its rich history and independence, French leaders are increasingly tying the future of France to the continued development of the [[European Union]]. France was integral in establishing the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and was among the EU's six founding states. During his tenure, President Mitterrand stressed the importance of European integration and advocated the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty on European economic and political union, which France's electorate narrowly approved in September 1992. The center of domestic attention soon shifted, however, to the economic reform and belt-tightening measures required for France to meet the criteria for Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) laid out by the Maastricht Treaty.

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* Fisher, Herbert. ''Napoleon'' (1913) 256pp old classic [http://books.google.com/books?vid=04ZJfyyBn9evm4khfD&id=dJcaAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=napoleon&as_brr=1 online edition free]

* Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)

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* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis

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* Grab, Alexander. ''Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe.'' (2003), pp. 249, maps; excellent synthesis

* Harold, J. Christopher. ''The Age of Napoleon'' (1963) 480pp, popular history stressing empire and diplomacy

* Markham, Felix. ''Napoleon'' 1963. 304pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=10369968 online edition]

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* Thompson, J. M. ''Napoleon Bonaparte: His Rise and Fall'' (1954), scholarly, well-balanced in topics, but pro-Britain

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====Restoration: 1815-1870====

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====Restoration: 1815-1870====

* Agulhon, Maurice. ''The Republican Experiment, 1848-1852'' (The Cambridge History of Modern France) (1983) [http://www.amazon.com/Republican-Experiment-1848-1852-Cambridge-History/dp/0521289882/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1197883571&sr=8-7 excerpt and text search]

* Echard, William E. ''Historical Dictionary of the French Second Empire, 1852-1870'' (1985) [http://www.questia.com/read/26477439?title=Historical%20Dictionary%20of%20the%20French%20Second%20Empire%2c%201852-1870 online edition]

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