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American Revolution (view source)

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[[Image:american-revolution-map.gif|thumb|200px|The 13 colonies in 1775]]

==Causes==

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* [[Boston Tea Party]], 1773. Destruction of the hated tea caused the British to try to crush the ~~Ameircan~~ spirit

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* [[Boston Tea Party]], 1773. Destruction of the hated tea caused the British to try to crush the American spirit

* [[Republicanism]], the basic political values of the Patriots--and Americans today

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* [[Stamp Act of 1765]], the British asserted power to tax without ~~represntation~~; ~~foled~~ by bold ~~Ameircan~~ reaction

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* [[Stamp Act of 1765]], the British asserted power to tax without representation; foiled by bold American reaction

* [[Townshend Acts]], 1767, more taxes imposed because the British insisted they could tax the Americans any time and any way

The revolution occurred in the hearts and minds of Americans in 1774-1776 as they realized that continued subservience to the British Empire was impossible. The [[Seven Years War]] ended in British victory in 1763, and there were no foreign threats to the American colonies, nor any serious Indian threats. London wanted stifling controls on the colonial economy and on westward expansion. They insisted that the colonists new taxes, but refused to allow representation in Parliament. Britain was not asking the Americans to share the burden of warfare--they never asked the colonial legislatures for that. Instead they insisted that Parliament had every right to tax the colonists whether they liked it or not. Power was the issue. Ominously London sent thousands of regular army troops--was this to protect the colonists from nonexistent threats, or to protect the Royal officials from the anger of the people? Nothing seemed more dangerous to the precious political liberties of the Americans than the sort of standing army Britain was forcing upon them. The colonists responded by setting up their own shadow government, including local committees and (beginning in 1774) a [[Continental Congress]]. The Empire thought it knew how to suppress rebellions--in 1715 and 1745 it had ruthlessly crushed the Highlanders in Scotland; in the 17th century it had taken control of Ireland in campaigns that killed thousands of Catholic rebels and left the Protestants in total domination.

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Tensions came to a head in Massachusetts. In late 1773 at the [[Boston Tea Party]], patriots disguised as Indians dumped a shipment of tea into the harbor in protest. London officials were outraged and plotted to so weaken Massachusetts that it could never defy the Empire again. In ~~ealy~~ 1774 Parliament passed the Coercive Acts that imposed near martial law, closed the courts, ended local government, shut the port of Boston, and suspended traditional civil liberties and economic freedom. Congress denounced the Acts, called for boycotts of British goods, and recommended that the militias ready their weapons. Georgia became the 13th colony represented in the Congress; however, Quebec, Nova Scotia, ~~Newfoundalnd~~, East Florida, West Florida and several island colonies in the Caribbean remained loyal. The French Catholics in Canada much preferred the tolerance of London to the anti-Catholic Yankees; they stayed loyal, as did the wealthy sugar planters who controlled the numerous West Indian colonies. East Florida, West Florida and Newfoundland were so small, so new, and so dominated by the British army and navy that they stayed loyal. Nova Scotia (just north of Maine) was the curious case. It had been settled largely by New England [[Yankees]], who favored Congress. Yet it was an isolated island, easily controlled by the Royal Navy from its powerful base in Halifax. Protests were put down, and the people stayed neutral, pouring their emotions into religious revival rather than revolution.

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Tensions came to a head in Massachusetts. In late 1773 at the [[Boston Tea Party]], patriots disguised as Indians dumped a shipment of tea into the harbor in protest. London officials were outraged and plotted to so weaken Massachusetts that it could never defy the Empire again. In early 1774 Parliament passed the Coercive Acts that imposed near martial law, closed the courts, ended local government, shut the port of Boston, and suspended traditional civil liberties and economic freedom. Congress denounced the Acts, called for boycotts of British goods, and recommended that the militias ready their weapons. Georgia became the 13th colony represented in the Congress; however, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, East Florida, West Florida and several island colonies in the Caribbean remained loyal. The French Catholics in Canada much preferred the tolerance of London to the anti-Catholic Yankees; they stayed loyal, as did the wealthy sugar planters who controlled the numerous West Indian colonies. East Florida, West Florida and Newfoundland were so small, so new, and so dominated by the British army and navy that they stayed loyal. Nova Scotia (just north of Maine) was the curious case. It had been settled largely by New England [[Yankees]], who favored Congress. Yet it was an isolated island, easily controlled by the Royal Navy from its powerful base in Halifax. Protests were put down, and the people stayed neutral, pouring their emotions into religious revival rather than revolution.

The 13 revolting colonies were the largest, richest, and most developed in the Empire. London had no intention of letting them go easily. General Thomas Gage imposed martial law, fortified Boston and raided nearby towns where rebels had stored munitions. The people of Massachusetts responded by setting up a provisional government, training militia units, and detecting and suppressing Loyalists and spies. A system of "minute men" was established, so that any alarm would be answered immediately. The Americans had sympathizers in Britain, but not enough. Parliament rejected conciliation by a 3 to 1 margin, and Gage was ordered to aggressively enforce the Coercion laws. More troops arrived, along with the generals who would later replace Gage and command the main British armies during the war, Sir William Howe (fall 1775 to spring 1778), Sir Henry Clinton (1778 to 1782) and John Burgoyne. All of them failed at their mission--perhaps because London political considerations made it impossible to remove careless generals who repeatedly lost tactical opportunities, quarreled or failed to coordinate with one another, and muffled the strategic designs that London drew up.

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[[Israel Putnam]], age 67, as he was plowing his Connecticut farm. He instantly unhitched a horse, left word for his militia to follow, and galloped the 100 miles in 18 hours. Within days Boston was surrounded by 10,000 patriots, enlisted for the year, armed with muskets and ready to fight.

==The challenge==

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In Philadelphia, the [[Continental Congress]] took charge of the war and sent ~~Virgia~~ leader [[George Washington]] as commander in chief of the American army.

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In Philadelphia, the [[Continental Congress]] took charge of the war and sent Virgina leader [[George Washington]] as commander in chief of the American army.

The most difficult and most important mission ever given the American military came in 1775: throw out the British army, repel the Royal Navy, preserve American liberties. In July 1776 the charge was expanded--to wrest total independence for the new nation, the United States of America. The challenge seemed impossible. Britain had a large professional army, the greatest navy afloat, three times the population, and a comprehensive administrative system that raised and spent money efficiently. Add to that her allies: fierce Indian tribes to the rear, Canada to the north, the Floridas to the South, and untold numbers of Loyalists right in the middle. The Americans had weak state governments which collected few taxes, a new, even weaker national government that lacked any taxing power at all. None of the states had standing armies or navies. Fortifications and harbor defenses were decrepit. Only in New England was the militia system anything more than an archaic joke. No one in America yet knew how to make gunpowder or cast cannon. Washington had never led as many as a thousand soldiers, and the other generals were even less experienced. A more subtle problem was that the Americans sought independence in large part because they feared a standing army--a force that would negate the republican government they sought--yet they needed a standing army to fight the Crown.

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The British battened down in Boston, which was on a peninsula and could not be attacked without artillery on the hills around the city. Led by [[Henry Knox]], a brilliant young clerk who had read military treatises and knew how to seize the moment, the patriots obtained 60 heavy guns from the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga, in upstate New York. Water traffic was controlled by the Royal Navy, so Knox organized ox teams that hauled the heavy guns on sleds across the snows and ice in winter 1775-76. When the guns finally arrived in Boston in March, 1776, the British in Boston were defenseless; they withdrew to the great British naval base in Halifax, Canada. The rebellion faced by their old enemy pleased the French, who began secret shipments of gunpowder, muskets and other vitally needed munitions, and allowed American privateers to use ports in France and the French West Indies.

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In full control of nearly all parts of the 13 states, and ~~realising~~ they had to break from London once and for all if they ever were to secure a full scale military alliance with France, the new United States of America declared its independence on July 4, 1776. This was a proclamation of a state of affairs that had taken effect at least a year earlier, when the Continental Congress took over the forces around Boston and formally established a Continental Army. The army's mission thus was to preserve the status quo of a new nation that had seized control of its fate. The British had to crush that symbol, and reassert the supremacy of the Crown. The Royal Navy blockaded the American coastline. Washington and his armies had to trudge overland, while the British forces could be moved rapidly by water from point to point. Although they had the naval power to seize any one point, Britain never had the manpower to occupy all the rebellious colonies simultaneously. At least 200,000 soldiers would have been needed for that, and probably more. London did expand its army, but service was unpopular and it could not raise enough troops. Efforts to hire mercenary armies around Europe turned up only 30,000 men rented out by the rulers of Hesse-Cassel and other tiny German countries. (The rulers were paid so much per soldier, with a bonus for those killed.) The 3,000-mile-long supply line drastically limited the number of troops that could be maintained in America. The supply line furthermore had to be constantly protected from American privateers (privately operated armed merchant ships with a license to attack British merchantmen.) London assumed that a small number of radicals, wholly unrepresentative of American opinion, had seized control. The solution was not to negotiate but to overthrow them. The reasonable Americans would see their duty as British citizens, and renew their allegiance to the Crown once they saw the invincible British army had arrived.

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In full control of nearly all parts of the 13 states, and realizing they had to break from London once and for all if they ever were to secure a full scale military alliance with France, the new United States of America declared its independence on July 4, 1776. This was a proclamation of a state of affairs that had taken effect at least a year earlier, when the Continental Congress took over the forces around Boston and formally established a Continental Army. The army's mission thus was to preserve the status quo of a new nation that had seized control of its fate. The British had to crush that symbol, and reassert the supremacy of the Crown. The Royal Navy blockaded the American coastline. Washington and his armies had to trudge overland, while the British forces could be moved rapidly by water from point to point. Although they had the naval power to seize any one point, Britain never had the manpower to occupy all the rebellious colonies simultaneously. At least 200,000 soldiers would have been needed for that, and probably more. London did expand its army, but service was unpopular and it could not raise enough troops. Efforts to hire mercenary armies around Europe turned up only 30,000 men rented out by the rulers of Hesse-Cassel and other tiny German countries. (The rulers were paid so much per soldier, with a bonus for those killed.) The 3,000-mile-long supply line drastically limited the number of troops that could be maintained in America. The supply line furthermore had to be constantly protected from American privateers (privately operated armed merchant ships with a license to attack British merchantmen.) London assumed that a small number of radicals, wholly unrepresentative of American opinion, had seized control. The solution was not to negotiate but to overthrow them. The reasonable Americans would see their duty as British citizens, and renew their allegiance to the Crown once they saw the invincible British army had arrived.

==Organization==

[[Image:Am-Rev.jpg|thumb|560px|left|Advantages (top) and disadvantages (bottom) General Washington had to cope with during the Revolution]]

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The [[Continental Congress]] was the national ~~gobvernment~~ that directed the war effort.

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The [[Continental Congress]] was the national government that directed the war effort.

===George Washington===

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==British victory at New York City, 1776==

The Patriots' glorious spring of 1776 gave way to disasters in the summer and fall for the fledgling Continental army and its inexperienced commander. The British Royal Navy had complete control of the seas (since the French were still neutral). They could move large forces anywhere on the coastline much faster than the Americans could build defenses or march in reinforcements. As Washington discovered, "The amazing advantage the Enemy derive from their Ships and the Command of the Water, keeps us in a state of constant perplexity and the most anxious conjecture." Throughout the war the British strategy focused on cities. They realized that the colonies did not have a true center like London, but the cities were all accessible by sea, and they all contained large Loyalist contingents who wined and dined the British officers, leaving the mistaken impression that most Americans "really" favored the King. New York City was a prime target--it had the best port in the colonies, and could be used to isolate the New England region. Congress demanded that Washington defend Manhattan island (population 22,000) and nearby Long Island. But any defense was hopeless in the face of 30 British warships with 1,200 guns, and 10,000 sailors, not to mention the hundreds of transports that carried nearly half of the British army--32,000 trained regulars. This powerful force-- 45% of the Royal Navy and by far the most formidable fighting unit on the globe--was assembled only because King George III himself demanded action, and his minister for American affairs Lord George Germain brilliantly solved the logistic challenge. It was commanded by Major General William Howe and his older brother Admiral Richard Howe. Fortunately for the American cause, the Howes were trying to be conciliatory; a massive show of force on land and a tight blockade at sea would show the Yankees how insane their rebellion was, inducing them to accept the generous pardons which Howe was prepared to offer. Conciliation would be a better route to reunion, Howe felt, than annihilation of the rebel armies. But annihilation it nearly was. Washington foolishly divided his 28,000 men between Long Island and Manhattan, and neglected to defend his flanks. Instead of charging head-on, as they did in Boston, the Redcoats used their mobility to land troops in the rear, A surprise amphibious landing trapped Washington at the Battle of Long Island (Aug 1776). Miraculously he evaded the fleet and escaped to Manhattan. But another amphibious landing trapped him again. A second miraculous escape took Washington north of the city.

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Washington had been whipped. Any remaining American taste for offensive warfare like the siege of Boston or the invasion of Canada dissolved in the face of British superiority in numbers and assault capability. Disorganization, shortages of supplies, fatigue, sickness, and above all, lack of confidence in the American leadership resulted in a melting away of untrained regulars and frightened militia. As Washington grumbled, "The honor of making a brave ~~defence~~ does not seem to be sufficient stimulus, when the success is very doubtful, and the falling into the Enemy's hands probable." The Connecticut contingent shrank from 8,000 to 2,000 in a matter of days. At White Plains. north of New York City, Washington again lost, and had to retreat to the hills of New Jersey. Meanwhile two major American forts, Lee and Washington, were surrounded and captured with 2,800 prisoners and the loss of sorely needed artillery and supplies. Manhattan and Long Island would fly the Union Jack until 1783. In December, 1776, the British seized control of New Jersey. The defeats were humiliating, but indecisive because the Howes neglected their opportunities to crush the insurgents. After all the casualties, captures, departures and desertions, Washington had only 16,000 men left--half the force he started with. He would never again battle the main British army, but would try to pick away at detachments and outposts. He knew the Redcoats could seize any city or other point they chose, but the new nation was so decentralized that it had no nerve center to be immobilized. Above all, Washington's goal was to keep his army alive as proof that the Revolution persisted.

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Washington had been whipped. Any remaining American taste for offensive warfare like the siege of Boston or the invasion of Canada dissolved in the face of British superiority in numbers and assault capability. Disorganization, shortages of supplies, fatigue, sickness, and above all, lack of confidence in the American leadership resulted in a melting away of untrained regulars and frightened militia. As Washington grumbled, "The honor of making a brave defense does not seem to be sufficient stimulus, when the success is very doubtful, and the falling into the Enemy's hands probable." The Connecticut contingent shrank from 8,000 to 2,000 in a matter of days. At White Plains. north of New York City, Washington again lost, and had to retreat to the hills of New Jersey. Meanwhile two major American forts, Lee and Washington, were surrounded and captured with 2,800 prisoners and the loss of sorely needed artillery and supplies. Manhattan and Long Island would fly the Union Jack until 1783. In December, 1776, the British seized control of New Jersey. The defeats were humiliating, but indecisive because the Howes neglected their opportunities to crush the insurgents. After all the casualties, captures, departures and desertions, Washington had only 16,000 men left--half the force he started with. He would never again battle the main British army, but would try to pick away at detachments and outposts. He knew the Redcoats could seize any city or other point they chose, but the new nation was so decentralized that it had no nerve center to be immobilized. Above all, Washington's goal was to keep his army alive as proof that the Revolution persisted.

[[Image:washington-deleware.jpg|500px|right|thumb|''Washington Crossing the Delaware'', by Emmanuel Leutze (1850)]]

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In Queens County New York, Loyalism was strong; about 12% of the people were patriots and 27% Loyalists.<ref> Joseph S. Tiedemann, "A Revolution Foiled: Queens County, New York, 1775-1776." ''Journal of American History'' 1988 75(2): 417-444. Issn: 0021-8723 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-8723(198809)75%3A2%3C417%3AARFQCN%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y in Jstor]</ref> (The remainder were neutral, but some could be coerced one way or the other.) In addition to their rare numerical advantage, the Loyalists had the secure refuge, for New York City was only a few miles away. Furthermore the British commissary agents were paying farmers real gold for food, horses and fuel, while the rebels only had dubious paper money. In most of the country, the rebels early on seized control of local governments, and enlisted the militia on their side, but in Queens, the Loyalists won control of most of the towns. In most of the country, the religious configuration favored the rebels. The New England Congregationalists and the southern Anglicans, for example, supported the revolution. In Queens, one fifth of the people were Quakers. Ostensibly neutral, the Quakers in fact were comfortable with the royal regime that had protected them for so long. Queens had a large Anglican and Dutch Reformed population (both 4 to 1 Tory), and many Presbyterians (5 to 1 patriot). Most newspapers in the colonies favored the revolution, as did most orators. In Queens the propaganda seemed to favor the Crown. The atrocities and oppression the patriots talked about endlessly were not local matters; no one was afraid of Indians any longer. When the patriots failed to win control of the spirit of Queens in 1775, they bluntly arrested and attacked supporters of the Crown. This gave the Loyalists the image of reasonable moderates defending the community against terrorists.

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When the redcoats occupied Queens from 1776 to 1783 the inhabitants discovered what the American Revolution was all about. Civilians were treated with contempt--attacked, raped, arrested, plundered, cheated, cut off from decisions. The British instituted a harsh martial law just to make sure there would be no unrest. Loyalism faded in Queens; the men increasingly refused to volunteer for Loyalist militia units, or spy on the patriots. Only one fifth of the original Tories went into exile after 1783; the remainder seemed pleased that the new government had restored peace. Not even under ideal conditions could the aristocratic British win the hearts and minds of the ~~equalitarian~~ Americans. But even if the British had figured out a counter-revolutionary strategy, after Saratoga it was too late.

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When the redcoats occupied Queens from 1776 to 1783 the inhabitants discovered what the American Revolution was all about. Civilians were treated with contempt--attacked, raped, arrested, plundered, cheated, cut off from decisions. The British instituted a harsh martial law just to make sure there would be no unrest. Loyalism faded in Queens; the men increasingly refused to volunteer for Loyalist militia units, or spy on the patriots. Only one fifth of the original Tories went into exile after 1783; the remainder seemed pleased that the new government had restored peace. Not even under ideal conditions could the aristocratic British win the hearts and minds of the egalitarian Americans. But even if the British had figured out a counter-revolutionary strategy, after Saratoga it was too late.

==Burgoyne's plan: split the Colonies, 1777==

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[[Image:Saratoga-1777.jpg|thumb|520px]]

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After taking patriot strongholds at Crown Point and Ft. Ticonderoga, Burgoyne marched his redcoats south toward Albany, New York. He was far behind schedule because the Americans systematically blocked his way; his long train of unnecessary artillery prevented fast movement. Supplies of food and fodder were running short; his foragers found the countryside had been stripped. A cautious commander might have declared victory (because of the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga) and hurried back to Canada, as General Guy Carleton had done in nearly the same location a year earlier. But "Gentleman Johnny" was the proudest of the British generals--an amateur playwright with a flair for the dramatic. His sharp criticism of Carleton's retreat had given him this command in the first place. Success would end the war and make him the toast of London. By early August, Burgoyne was still far from Albany, and was running short of food. He sent 700 Hessians to Bennington, Vermont, to capture supplies, but only a handful returned. This was the his first indication of trouble--desperate trouble. The American militias had mobilized by the hundreds, by the thousands, and had whipped the Hessians at Bennington. Burgoyne was stunned to discover that Loyalists were refusing to join his army or supply provisions. "The great bulk of the country [upstate New York] is undoubtedly with the Congress in principle and in zeal.... Wherever the King's forces point, militia to the amount of three or four thousand assemble within twenty-four hours; they bring their own subsistence, and the alarm over they return to their farms."<ref> Burgoyne to Germain, 20 Aug 1777 in Davies 14:166 </ref> Burgoyne finally called for help, and in late September Clinton led 3,000 men--an inadequate force--to capture American forts around West Point. They never came closer than 100 miles to Burgoyne. His invading army, with 2000 British regulars, 500 Loyalists and 2500 Hessians, was outnumbered 2-1 and was trapped. On September 14 he crossed his Rubicon, to the west bank of the Hudson River, and headed inland. On September 19 he led an assault at Freeman's Farm in an attempt to move west of Bemis Heights. 4,200 redcoats encountered MG Benedict Arnold with 2,000 Americans. Colonel Daniel Morgan' riflemen and Major Henry Dearborn's light infantry were forced to withdraw after a Hessian envelopment of their right flank. The American commander, Major General [[Horatio Gates]] had only committed these troops at Arnold's insistence, and refused to give them artillery or reinforcements. At nightfall Gates conceded the field. He understood the futility of direct assaults, and by limiting his casualties to only 65 dead he had encouraged more militia to join his army. Furthermore, the British victory proved costly, since they lost 600 irreplaceable men.<ref>Burgoyne to Sir ~~Henrty~~ Clinton, 28 Sept 1777 in Davies 14:191 </ref>

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After taking patriot strongholds at Crown Point and Ft. Ticonderoga, Burgoyne marched his redcoats south toward Albany, New York. He was far behind schedule because the Americans systematically blocked his way; his long train of unnecessary artillery prevented fast movement. Supplies of food and fodder were running short; his foragers found the countryside had been stripped. A cautious commander might have declared victory (because of the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga) and hurried back to Canada, as General Guy Carleton had done in nearly the same location a year earlier. But "Gentleman Johnny" was the proudest of the British generals--an amateur playwright with a flair for the dramatic. His sharp criticism of Carleton's retreat had given him this command in the first place. Success would end the war and make him the toast of London. By early August, Burgoyne was still far from Albany, and was running short of food. He sent 700 Hessians to Bennington, Vermont, to capture supplies, but only a handful returned. This was the his first indication of trouble--desperate trouble. The American militias had mobilized by the hundreds, by the thousands, and had whipped the Hessians at Bennington. Burgoyne was stunned to discover that Loyalists were refusing to join his army or supply provisions. "The great bulk of the country [upstate New York] is undoubtedly with the Congress in principle and in zeal.... Wherever the King's forces point, militia to the amount of three or four thousand assemble within twenty-four hours; they bring their own subsistence, and the alarm over they return to their farms."<ref> Burgoyne to Germain, 20 Aug 1777 in Davies 14:166 </ref> Burgoyne finally called for help, and in late September Clinton led 3,000 men--an inadequate force--to capture American forts around West Point. They never came closer than 100 miles to Burgoyne. His invading army, with 2000 British regulars, 500 Loyalists and 2500 Hessians, was outnumbered 2-1 and was trapped. On September 14 he crossed his Rubicon, to the west bank of the Hudson River, and headed inland. On September 19 he led an assault at Freeman's Farm in an attempt to move west of Bemis Heights. 4,200 redcoats encountered MG Benedict Arnold with 2,000 Americans. Colonel Daniel Morgan' riflemen and Major Henry Dearborn's light infantry were forced to withdraw after a Hessian envelopment of their right flank. The American commander, Major General [[Horatio Gates]] had only committed these troops at Arnold's insistence, and refused to give them artillery or reinforcements. At nightfall Gates conceded the field. He understood the futility of direct assaults, and by limiting his casualties to only 65 dead he had encouraged more militia to join his army. Furthermore, the British victory proved costly, since they lost 600 irreplaceable men.<ref>Burgoyne to Sir Henry Clinton, 28 Sept 1777 in Davies 14:191 </ref>

[[Image:Surrender of General Burgoyne.jpg|500px|right|thumb|''Surrender of General Burgoyne'', by John Trumbull, c. 1819]]

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[[Image:Yorktown Surrender.JPG|right|thumb|500px|''The Surrender at Yorktown'', by John Trumbull, 1820]]

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At Yorktown Washington assembled 5,700 Continentals, 3,200 militia and 7,800 French regulars on loan as part of the alliance. French siege experts used their standard techniques, forcing the redcoats back while new trenches zig-zagged forward. By October 10, 46 heavy guns shelled all parts of the British camp, and another 50 were in action a week later. Cornwallis, huddled in a cave along the riverfront, knew it was hopeless. On October 19 his band played a melancholy tune, "The World Turned Upside Down," as his 8,000 men paraded in surrender.<ref> Cornwallis to Sir Henry Clinton, 20 Oct 1781, in Davies 20:244-248</ref> Despite the size of the contending forces, and the importance of the siege, there were only 260 allied and 550 British casualties. The Americans were annoyed when the French officers began fraternizing with British officer-prisoners. The rustic Yankee officers and their upper class French counterparts had always kept at arms' length. The battle of Yorktown was the last action needed for victory, as the King lost control of ~~Pariament~~ and the new government opened peace talks that came to fruition in 1783. The disaster at Yorktown broke the morale of the governing class in London and paralyzed Britain's national will to make war.<ref> Brooke, ''George III'' p 353-4. However a naval war between Britain and France continued in the West Indies, with Admiral Rodney sinking DeGrasse's entire French fleet in April 1782. </ref>

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At Yorktown Washington assembled 5,700 Continentals, 3,200 militia and 7,800 French regulars on loan as part of the alliance. French siege experts used their standard techniques, forcing the redcoats back while new trenches zig-zagged forward. By October 10, 46 heavy guns shelled all parts of the British camp, and another 50 were in action a week later. Cornwallis, huddled in a cave along the riverfront, knew it was hopeless. On October 19 his band played a melancholy tune, "The World Turned Upside Down," as his 8,000 men paraded in surrender.<ref> Cornwallis to Sir Henry Clinton, 20 Oct 1781, in Davies 20:244-248</ref> Despite the size of the contending forces, and the importance of the siege, there were only 260 allied and 550 British casualties. The Americans were annoyed when the French officers began fraternizing with British officer-prisoners. The rustic Yankee officers and their upper class French counterparts had always kept at arms' length. The battle of Yorktown was the last action needed for victory, as the King lost control of Parliament and the new government opened peace talks that came to fruition in 1783. The disaster at Yorktown broke the morale of the governing class in London and paralyzed Britain's national will to make war.<ref> Brooke, ''George III'' p 353-4. However a naval war between Britain and France continued in the West Indies, with Admiral Rodney sinking DeGrasse's entire French fleet in April 1782. </ref>

==Medical and casualties==

There were about 200,000 enlistments in militia and Continental forces (including many who enlisted twice). The number of deaths by combat and disease was 4,435, with another 6,188 seriously injured.<ref> The British and Loyalist totals are not included. The data is conjectural. See "Statistical Summary America's Major Wars" at [http://www.cwc.lsu.edu/other/stats/warcost.htm]</ref>

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